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Andırın A, Yaycı ND, Idikut M, Kara A, Tuncsoy M, Tuncsoy B, Ozalp P. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using carob leaf extract: Characterization and analysis of toxic effects in model organism Galleria mellonella L. (The greater wax moth). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-34996-y. [PMID: 39294535 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34996-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 09/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/20/2024]
Abstract
Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) have been used in many studies due to their inhibitory properties on microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. In recent years, due to global problems such as environmental pollution, the green synthesis (biosynthesis) method is frequently preferred because it is simple and low cost and does not require the use of toxic substances. The aim of this study is to synthesize silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) from Ceratonia siliqua L. leaves and investigate their antioxidant and immunotoxic properties using Galleria mellonella last instar larvae. The UV spectrophotometer, TEM, XRD and FTIR measurements were used to characterize the Ag NPs. In this study, it was determined that the effects on antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx, GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and total hemocyte count (THC) as well as phenoloxidase activity determine their effect on antioxidant defence and the immune system in model organism G. mellonella larvae. We observed that green synthesized Ag NPs accumulate in the midgut of the larvae and led to the increasing of CAT and SOD activities. GST and AChE activities were increased in the fat body of the larvae; otherwise, it was decreased in the midgut. Moreover, increases were found in THC and phenoloxidase activity. Consequently, green synthesized silver nanoparticles led to oxidative stress and immunotoxic effects on G. mellonella larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslıhan Andırın
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Adana Alparslan Turkes Science and Technology University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Nur Dudu Yaycı
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Adana Alparslan Turkes Science and Technology University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Murat Idikut
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Adana Alparslan Turkes Science and Technology University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Ayse Kara
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letter, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Tuncsoy
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letter, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
| | - Benay Tuncsoy
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Adana Alparslan Turkes Science and Technology University, Adana, Turkey.
| | - Pınar Ozalp
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letter, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
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Demirtürk Z, Uçkan F, Mert S. Interactions of alumina and polystyrene nanoparticles with the innate immune system of Galleria mellonella. Drug Chem Toxicol 2024; 47:483-495. [PMID: 37259574 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2023.2217484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, particularly metallic, and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are widely produced and used in many fields. Due to the increase in both their usage and diversity, their release and accumulation in the environment are also accelerating. Therefore, their interactions with cells, especially immune cells, and their health risks are not fully understood. The impacts of metallic alumina (Al) NPs and polystyrene (PS) NPs obtained after the polymerization of carcinogenic styrene on living organisms have not yet been elucidated. Galleria mellonella larvae can biodegrade plastics. While biodegradation and solving the waste problem have attracted much attention, the interactions of this distinctive property of G. mellonella larvae in the immune system and ecosystem are not yet completely understood. Al and PS NPs were applied to G. mellonella separately. Al NPs were purchased and PS NPs were prepared from PS by single-emulsion technique and characterized. Then LC50 values of these NPs on G. mellonella were determined. The interactions of these NPs with encapsulation, melanization, and phenoloxidase activity, which express innate immune responses in G. mellonella larvae, were revealed. NP exposure resulted in suppression of the immune response, probably because it affects the functions of hemocytes such as enzymatic activation, hemocyte division, and populations. In this context, our data suggest that Al and PS NPs induce toxic impacts and negatively alter the physiological status of G. mellonella. It is also shown that G. mellonella has the potential to be an impactful alternative model for biosafety and nanotoxicology studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fevzi Uçkan
- Department of Biology, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Türkiye
| | - Serap Mert
- Department of Polymer Science and Technology, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Türkiye
- Center for Stem Cell and Gene Therapies Research and Practice, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Türkiye
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processing Technology, Kocaeli University, Türkiye
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Marieshwari BN, Bhuvaragavan S, Sruthi K, Mullainadhan P, Janarthanan S. Insect phenoloxidase and its diverse roles: melanogenesis and beyond. J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:1-23. [PMID: 36472653 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-022-01468-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Insect life on earth is greatly diversified despite being exposed to several infectious agents due to their diverse habitats and ecological niche. One of the major factors responsible for their successful establishment is having a powerful innate immune system. The most common and effective method used by insects in recognizing pathogen and non-self-substances is the melanization process among others. The key enzyme involved in melanin biosynthesis is the copper containing humoral defense enzyme, phenoloxidase (PO). This review focused on understanding about PO and that had been in research for nearly a century. The review elaborates about evolutionary significance of PO in arthropods, its relationship with mammalian tyrosinases, various substrates, activators and inhibitors involved in the activation of phenoloxidase cascade, as it requires an integrated system of activation that vary among insect species. The enzyme also plays a vital role in insect immunity by involving in several other immune functions like sclerotization, wound healing, opsonization, encapsulation and nodule formation. Further, gene knock down or knock out of PO genes and inhibition of PO-melanization cascade by several mechanisms can also be considered as promising future alternative to control serious pests by making them highly susceptible to any targeted attack.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kannan Sruthi
- Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, 600025, India
| | | | - Sundaram Janarthanan
- Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, 600025, India.
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Garvey M, Bredlau J, Kester K, Creighton C, Kaplan I. Toxin or medication? Immunotherapeutic effects of nicotine on a specialist caterpillar. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Garvey
- Department of Biological Sciences Louisiana State University Baton Rouge LA USA
- Department of Entomology Purdue University West Lafayette IN USA
| | - Justin Bredlau
- Department of Entomology University of Kentucky Lexington KY USA
- Department of Biology Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond VA USA
| | - Karen Kester
- Department of Biology Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond VA USA
| | - Curtis Creighton
- Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University Northwest Hammond IN USA
| | - Ian Kaplan
- Department of Entomology Purdue University West Lafayette IN USA
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Baruah GS, Sarma HK, Bardoloi S, Bora D. Purification and characterization of phenoloxidase from the hemolymph of healthy and diseased Antheraea assamensis Helfer (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae): Effects of certain biological components and chemical agents on enzyme activity. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 100:e21531. [PMID: 30588648 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, a dimeric phenoloxidase (PO) from the hemolymph of healthy and diseased (pebrine infected) larvae of Antheraea assamensis Helfer was extracted and purified. The protein was subjected to purification using Sephacryl S-100 and CM Sepharose chromatography. The enzyme comprised of two subunits of ~76.8 and 76 kDa that showed PO activity in 6 mM l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) and 8 mM catechol but not in hydroquinone. Optimum temperature for PO activity was 30°C in l-DOPA and 37°C in catechol. Optimum pH ranged from 6.8 to 7.0 in L-DOPA and 7.0-7.2 in catechol. Specific activity of the purified PO from healthy larvae was 53.9 µM/min per mg of protein per ml in L-DOPA and 50.77 µM/min per mg of protein per ml in catechol. Specific activity of PO from diseased larvae was 30.0 µM/min per mg of protein per ml in L-DOPA and 28.55 µM/min per mg of protein per ml in catechol. Purification fold was 3.27-4.21 for healthy and 2.38-2.56 for diseased fractions. The enzyme showed the Michaelis constant (Km ) of 2.46-2.85 mM for healthy and diseased fractions in L-DOPA. In catechol Km of 9.23-17.71 mM was observed. Peptidoglycan was the best activator of purified PO from both healthy and diseased fractions. Interactions between controls and activators appeared statistically significant (F = 767.5; df = 3; P < 0.0001). Na+ , K+ , and Cu2+ increased, whereas Ca2+ , Zn2+ , Mg2+ , and Co2+ decreased PO activity. The overall interactions appeared highly significant (F = 217.0; df = 27; P < 0.0001). Kojic acid, dithiothreitol, thiourea, phenylthiourea, carbendazim, N-bromosuccinimide, N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid, and diethyldithiocarbamate inhibited PO activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayatri Sarma Baruah
- Department of Life Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, India
- Advanced Level Institutional Biotech Hub, Department of Zoology, B. Borooah College, Guwahati, India
| | | | - Sunayan Bardoloi
- Advanced Level Institutional Biotech Hub, Department of Zoology, B. Borooah College, Guwahati, India
| | - Dipsikha Bora
- Department of Life Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, India
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Jayanthi S, Vaseeharan B, Ishwarya R, Karthikeyan S, Govindarajan M, Alharbi NS, Kadaikunnan S, Khaled JM, Vágvölgyi C. Identification, characterization and immune response of prophenoloxidase from the blue swimmer crab Portunus pelagicus and its antibiofilm activity. Int J Biol Macromol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Abstract
AbstractPhosphatidyl serine plays an important role in animal innate immunity. Given its important functions, numerous investigations have been carried out on its immunological function in many animals. However, studies of phosphatidyl serine in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, an economically important animal, are rare. In this paper, we demonstrated influences of injecting phosphatidyl serine (PS) on immune response including some parameters from pro-phenol oxidase activating system (pro-PO system) and hemocyanin-derived phenol oxidase activity (Hd-PO) along with antibacterial and bacteriolytic activities in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei with different PS concentrations (5, 10 and 20 μg mL−1). The results showed that PS could affect immune response of L. vannamei significantly (P<0.05), including total hemocyte counts (THC), PO activity from hemocyte, phenol oxidase (PO) activity from plasma, hemocyanin concentration, Hd-PO activity as well as antibacterial and bacteriolytic activities in the plasma. Among the lines, 20 μg mL−1 PS had the strongest effect on the above parameters, whereas 5 μg mL−1 had the least effect. The experimental results indicated that PS was able to activate exocytosis of pro-PO and formation of Hd-PO in white shrimp after injection, further regulating the immune process reflected by variation of antibacterial and bacteriolytic activities in a certain way.
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Laughton AM, Garcia JR, Altincicek B, Strand MR, Gerardo NM. Characterisation of immune responses in the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 57:830-839. [PMID: 21439291 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune system of insects provides effective defence against a range of parasites and pathogens. The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, is a novel study system for investigating host-parasite interactions due to its complex associations with both well-characterised bacterial symbionts and a diversity of pathogens and parasites, including several important biological control agents. However, little is known about the cellular and humoral immune responses of aphids. Here we identify three morphologically distinct types of haemocytes in circulation that we name prohemocytes, granulocytes and oenocytoids. Granulocytes avidly phagocytose Gram negative Escherechia coli and Gram positive Micrococcus luteus while oenocytoids exhibit melanotic activity. Prohaemocytes increase in abundance immediately following an immune challenge, irrespective of the source of stimulus. Pea aphids form melanotic capsules around Sephadex beads but do not form cellular capsules. We also did not detect any antimicrobial peptide activity in the haemolymph using zone of inhibition assays. We discuss these results in relation to recent findings from the pea aphid genome annotation project that suggest that aphids have a reduced immune gene repertoire compared to other insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice M Laughton
- Biology Department, Emory University, O. Wayne Rollins Research Center, 1510 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Mullen LM, Goldsworthy GJ. Immune responses of locusts to challenge with the pathogenic fungus Metarhizium or high doses of laminarin. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 52:389-98. [PMID: 16413931 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2005.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2005] [Revised: 10/18/2005] [Accepted: 10/18/2005] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Two isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae var acridum were tested for their effects on the locust immune system and for comparison with the effects of challenge by injection with laminarin. Isolate IMI 330189 (referred to hereafter as Met 189) is highly pathogenic whether applied topically as conidia or injected as blastospores. However, isolate ARSEF 728 (referred to hereafter as Met 728) is pathogenic only when injected as blastospores, suggesting that the lack of pathogenicity of topically applied conidia from this isolate is due to a failure to penetrate the insect cuticle and gain access to the haemocoel. After topical application of conidia from Met 189, no activation of prophenoloxidase is detected, but injection of blastospores from Met 189 brings about a transient increase in phenoloxidase activity in the haemolymph in both adult locusts and 5th instar nymphs, although this does not prevent fungal-induced mortality. Co-injection of adipokinetic hormone-I (AKH-I) with blastospores prolongs the activation of prophenoloxidase in the haemolymph of adult locusts, and enhances it in nymphs. It is argued that the lack of activation of prophenoloxidase in nymphs shown previously (Mullen, L., Goldsworthy, G., 2003. Changes in lipophorins are related to the activation of phenoloxidase in the haemolymph of Locusta migratoria in response to injection of immunogens. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 33, 661-670), reflects differences in the sensitivity of the immune system between adults and nymphs rather than distinct qualitative differences, and this is confirmed in this study by the demonstration that doses of laminarin higher than those used previously (>or=100 microg) do activate the prophenoloxidase cascade in 5th instar nymphs. Nodules are formed in locusts of all ages in response to fungal infection or injection of laminarin, although there is wide variation in the number, size and distribution of nodules formed. During the examination of 5th instar nymphs for nodule formation, a previously unknown phenomenon was observed in which the salivary glands melanise in response to injections of blastospores or high doses of laminarin. In c. 85% of such nymphs, this reaction is so strong that the whole salivary gland is intensely black. Such a response is not observed in the salivary glands of mature adult locusts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Mullen
- Department of Biology, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK
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Schwarzenbach GA, Ward PI. RESPONSES TO SELECTION ON PHENOLOXIDASE ACTIVITY IN YELLOW DUNG FLIES. Evolution 2006. [DOI: 10.1554/06-090.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Korner P, Schmid-Hempel P. In vivo dynamics of an immune response in the bumble bee Bombus terrestris. J Invertebr Pathol 2004; 87:59-66. [PMID: 15491600 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2004.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2004] [Accepted: 07/08/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Concepts from evolutionary ecology have recently been applied to questions of immune defences. However, an important but often neglected aspect is the temporal dynamics of the simple immune measures used in ecological studies. Here, we present observations for workers of the bumble bee Bombus terrestris on the dynamics of the phenoloxidase (PO) system, antibacterial activity, and the total number of haemocytes following a challenge with immune elicitors (LPS, Laminarin), over a time-span ranging from 1min to 14 days. The dynamics of the PO measurement showed a complex pattern and was correlated with haemocyte counts. Antibacterial activity, on the other hand, increased sharply between 2 and 24h post-challenge followed by a slow decrease. Surprisingly, the effects of a challenge lasted up to 14 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Korner
- Ecology and Evolution, ETH-Zentrum NW, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Goldsworthy G, Chandrakant S, Opoku-Ware K. Adipokinetic hormone enhances nodule formation and phenoloxidase activation in adult locusts injected with bacterial lipopolysaccharide. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2003; 49:795-803. [PMID: 12880660 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1910(03)00118-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between the locust endocrine and immune systems have been studied in vivo in relation to nodule formation and activation of the prophenoloxidase cascade in the haemolymph. Injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) extracted from Escherichia coli induces nodule formation in larval and adult locusts but does not increase phenoloxidase activity in the haemolymph. Nodule formation starts rapidly after injection of LPS and is virtually complete within 8 h, nodules occurring mainly associated with the dorsal diaphragm on either side of the heart, but sometimes with smaller numbers associated with the ventral diaphragm on either side of the nerve cord. Co-injection of adipokinetic hormone-I (Lom-AKH-I) with LPS stimulates greater numbers of nodules to be formed in larval and adult locusts, and activates phenoloxidase in the haemolymph of mature adults but not of nymphs. The effect of co-injection of Lom-AKH-I with LPS on nodule formation is seen at low doses of hormone; only 0.4 pmol of Lom-AKH-I per adult locust is needed to produce a 50% increase in the number of nodules formed. When different components of LPS from the E. coli Rd mutant are tested, the mono- and the diphosphoryl Lipid A components have similar effects to the intact LPS. Remarkably, detoxified LPS activates phenoloxidase in the absence of Lom-AKH-I, although co-injection with hormone does enhance this response. Both diphosphoryl Lipid A and detoxified LPS induce a level of nodule formation that is enhanced by co-injection of Lom-AKH-I, but monophosphoryl Lipid A does not initiate nodule formation even when injected with hormone. Co-injection of a water-soluble inhibitor of eicosanoid synthesis, diclofenac (2-[(2, 6-dichlorophenyl)amino] benzeneacetic acid), reduces nodule formation in response to injections of LPS (both in the absence and presence of hormone) in a dose-dependent manner, but does not prevent activation of phenoloxidase in adult locusts. It is shown that nodule formation and activation of the prophenoloxidase in locust haemolymph can both be enhanced by Lom-AKH-I, but it is argued that these processes involve distinct mechanisms in which eicosanoid synthesis is important for nodule formation, but not for the increased phenoloxidase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Goldsworthy
- Department of Biology, Birkbeck College, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK.
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Dunphy GB, Oberholzer U, Whiteway M, Zakarian RJ, Boomer I. Virulence ofCandida albicansmutants toward larvalGalleria mellonella(Insecta, Lepidoptera, Galleridae). Can J Microbiol 2003; 49:514-24. [PMID: 14608387 DOI: 10.1139/w03-064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Culture medium affected the virulence of a strain of Candida albicans toward Galleria mellonella larvae, but the yeast growth rates in yeast extract peptone dextrose broth and synthetic Galleria serum were not correlated with yeast virulence. Virulent C. albicans grew rapidly in larval serum, whereas, it limited nodulation and continued development in vivo, producing toxins that damaged the hemocytes and fat body. Nonpathogenic yeast-phase cells grew slowly in larval serum but induced extensively melanized nodules in vivo and developed no further. There was no discernible relationship in 14 exo-enzymes between the virulent and avirulent yeast strains and virulence. The avirulent myosin-I-defective yeast cells were rapidly removed from the hemolymph in vivo because of lysozyme-mediated yeast agglutination and the possible binding of the yeast cells by lysozyme and apolipophorin-III. Both lysozyme and apolipophorin-III are proteins that bind β-1,3-glucan. Finally, insects with nonpathogenic C. albicans exhibited induced immunity and were more resistant to candidiasis from the wild-type yeast cells than were noninduced insects.Key words: Candida, virulence, insect, nodule, melanization, apolipophorin-III.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary B Dunphy
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, QC, Canada
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Hernández-López J, Gollas-Galván T, Gómez-Jiménez S, Portillo-Clark G, Vargas-Albores F. In the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus) the prophenoloxidase is located in plasma not in haemocytes. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 14:105-114. [PMID: 12526875 DOI: 10.1006/fsim.2002.0419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
In the spiny lobster (Panulirus interruptus), unlike other crustaceans most of the prophenoloxidase (proPO) was detected in cell-free plasma (86.3%). In spite of its location, lobster proPO activating system has a similar activation mechanism to other crustacean proPO systems. Haemocyte lysate was able to activate the plasma proPO indicating location of the prophenoloxidase activating enzyme (PPAE) in haemocytes. Lobster haemocyte PPAE was isolated by affinity chromatography and its participation as activating enzyme was demonstrated. This enzyme is a serine-proteinase that transforms the inactive form (proPO) to an active one (phenoloxidase). The PPAE was also present in the cell-free supernatant of haemocytes previously incubated with Vibrio alginolyticus.
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Dunphy GB, Niven DF, Chadwick JS. Iron contributes to the antibacterial functions of the haemolymph of Galleria mellonella. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2002; 48:903-914. [PMID: 12770052 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1910(02)00159-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Studies with Galleria mellonella larvae and the iron chelating agent EDDA showed that iron was essential for the removal of dead Xenorhabdas nematophila and Bacillus subtilis from the haemolymph. The delay in removal of the bacteria from the iron-restricted haemolymph was attributed to reduced adhesiveness of the haemocytes and prophenoloxidase activity. Iron augmentation returned these activities to control levels. Whereas dead B. subtilis had no effect on the concentration of ferrozine-detectable iron (henceforth iron) in the haemolymph, dead X. nematophila was associated with substantially lower levels of iron as the number of damaged haemocytes increased. Haemocyte lysate lowered the concentrations of iron in both FeCl(3) solutions and deproteinized larval serum independent of serum lipids. Haemocyte lysate added to tryptic soybroth lowered the level of iron and limited the growth of X. nematophila. X. nematophila limited iron availability in the plasma by releasing lipopolysaccharides; such a mechanism may be a means of impairing the antimicrobial defences of the insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary B. Dunphy
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21, 111 Lakeshore Road, H9X 3V9, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Canada
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Yin L, Wang C, Qin J. Effect of the endoparasitoidCampoletis chlorideae on phenoloxidase activity inHelicoverpa armigera hemolymph. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02900553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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da Silva CC, Dunphy GB, Rau ME. Interaction of Xenorhabdus nematophilus (Enterobacteriaceae) with the antimicrobial defenses of the house cricket, Acheta domesticus. J Invertebr Pathol 2000; 76:285-92. [PMID: 11112374 DOI: 10.1006/jipa.2000.4975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Fifth instar Acheta domesticus nymphs exhibited a decline in total hemocyte counts during the first hour of exposure to dead Xenorhabdus nematophilus; the bacterial level in the hemolymph also declined during this time. Thereafter bacterial numbers in the hemolymph increased as the level of damaged hemocytes increased. The bacteria lowered phenoloxidase activity in vivo by initially reducing the number of hemocytes containing prophenoloxidase and later by inhibiting enzyme activation. Preincubating X. nematophilus in hemolymph with active phenoloxidase in vitro accelerated the removal of the bacteria from the hemolymph in vivo which may be due to modification of the bacterial surface by serine proteases. Lysozyme activity increased in bacteria-injected insects in parallel with an increase in counts of damaged hemocytes; most of the enzyme was located in hemocytes. Lipopolysaccharides of X. nematophilus caused changes in hemocyte counts and phenoloxidase and lysozyme levels comparable to whole bacteria. Lipopolysaccharides also slowed the removal rate of the bacteria from, and accelerated bacterial emergence into, the hemolymph.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C da Silva
- EMBRAPA-Recursos Geneticos e Biotecnologia, SAIN Parque Rural, Av. W5 Norte, Brasilia DF, 70770-900, Brazil
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Halwani AE, Niven DF, Dunphy GB. Apolipophorin-III and the interactions of lipoteichoic acids with the immediate immune responses of Galleria mellonella. J Invertebr Pathol 2000; 76:233-41. [PMID: 11112367 DOI: 10.1006/jipa.2000.4978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effects of lipoteichoic acids, surface components of Gram-positive bacteria, on the hemocytes and phenoloxidase activity in last instar Galleria mellonella larvae, as well as the binding of apolipophorin-III, an insect lipid-binding protein, to lipoteichoic acids. Binding of apolipophorin-III to lipoteichoic acid was studied using an assay based on 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue. Apolipophorin-III bound the lipoteichoic acids from Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus hirae, and Streptococcus pyogenes and to intact cells of E. hirae. E. hirae lipoteichoic acid promoted the binding of apolipophorin-III to the cells of this species. All lipoteichoic acids tested caused a dose- and time-dependent drop in the total counts of hemocytes and, depending on the species of lipoteichoic acid, partial or complete depletion of plasmatocytes. Granulocyte counts were not affected. Apolipophorin-III prevented partially the loss of plasmatocytes due to B. subtilis lipoteichoic acid. All three lipoteichoic acids studied activated phenoloxidase in vitro; injections of B. subtilis lipoteichoic acid into the larvae elevated the phenoloxidase activity, whereas injections of E. hirae or S. pyogenes lipoteichoic acid, or apolipophorin-III alone, suppressed it. Apolipophorin-III decreased the activation of phenoloxidase by B. subtilis lipoteichoic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Halwani
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21 111 Lakeshore Road, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, H9X 3V9, Canada
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Park Y, Kim Y. Eicosanoids rescue Spodoptera exigua infected with Xenorhabdus nematophilus, the symbiotic bacteria to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2000; 46:1469-1476. [PMID: 10891575 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1910(00)00071-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Xenorhabdus nematophilus is a pathogenic bacterium causing insect haemolymph septicemia, which leads to host insect death. To address the fundamental mechanisms underlying this haemolymph septicemia, or the immunodepressive response of the host insects following bacterial infection, we tested a hypothesis that the insect immune-mediating eicosanoid pathway is blocked by inhibitory action of the bacterium. Haemocoelic injection of the bacteria into the fifth instar larvae of Spodoptera exigua reduced the total number of living haemocytes with postinjection time and resulted in host death in 16 h at 25 degrees C. The lethal efficacy, described by the median lethal bacterial dose (LD(50)), was estimated as 33 colony-forming units per fifth instar larva of S. exigua. The lethal effect of the bacteria on the infected larvae decreased significantly with the addition of exogenous arachidonic acid (10 µg), a precursor of eicosanoids. In comparison, injections of dexamethasone (10 µg), a specific inhibitor of phospholipase A(2), and other eicosanoid biosynthesis inhibitors elevated significantly the bacterial pathogenicity. Live X. nematophilus induced the infected larvae to form less nodules than did the heat-killed bacteria, but the addition of arachidonic acid increased the number of nodules formed significantly in response to live bacterial injection. The treatment with dexamethasone and other inhibitors, however, decreased the nodule formation after injection of heat-killed bacteria. These results indicate that eicosanoids play a role in the immune response of S. exigua, and suggest strongly that X. nematophilus inhibits its eicosanoid pathway, which then results in immunodepressive haemolymph septicemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Park
- School of Bioresource Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Andong National University, 760-749, Andong, South Korea
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21
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Daquinag AC, Sato T, Koda H, Takao T, Fukuda M, Shimonishi Y, Tsukamoto T. A novel endogenous inhibitor of phenoloxidase from Musca domestica has a cystine motif commonly found in snail and spider toxins. Biochemistry 1999; 38:2179-88. [PMID: 10026302 DOI: 10.1021/bi9819834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Phenoloxidase inhibitor (POI), found in the hemolymph of housefly pupae, is a novel dopa-containing and cystine-rich peptide that competitively inhibits phenoloxidase with a Ki in the nanomolar range. [Tyr32]POI is a potential precursor molecule also found in the hemolymph that may be posttranslationally oxidized to the dopa-containing peptide after creation of a rigid structure. By employing both a solid-phase peptide synthesis system based on a 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl strategy and a specific air oxidation technique to ensure correct folding, we have been able to synthesize [Tyr32]POI. The synthetic [Tyr32]POI was confirmed to be identical to the native [Tyr32]POI by coelution high-performance liquid chromatography analysis and by enzymatic analysis using the phenoloxidase inhibition assay. To determine the disulfide pairings within the peptides, a series of enzyme hydrolyses and partial reduction/alkylation steps were performed. Three cystine pairs (Cys11-Cys25, Cys18-Cys29, and Cys24-Cys36) were determined by identification of the resulting peptides. The disulfide pairings of the two adjacent Cys residues (Cys11-Cys25 and Cys24-Cys36) were unambiguously assigned by comparing the derived fragments with the two possible isomers synthesized through a novel disulfide-linking technique. The arrangement of the disulfide bridges in POI was found to be topologically identical to those found for several peptides within the inhibitor cystine knot structural family. Although these peptides share a low primary sequence homology and display a diversity of biological functions, they nonetheless share similarities in their cystine motifs and tertiary structure. The tertiary structure model of POI, which was derived through molecular dynamics and energy minimization studies using restraints with determined disulfide connectivities, suggests that POI is a new class member of the inhibitor cystine-knot structural family.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Daquinag
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Saga University, Japan
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22
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Halwani A, Dunphy G. Haemolymph proteins of larvae of Galleria mellonella detoxify endotoxins of the insect pathogenic bacteria Xenorhabdus nematophilus (Enterobacteriaceae). JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 1997; 43:1023-1029. [PMID: 12770474 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1910(97)00072-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Haemolymph of non-vaccinated Galleria mellonella larvae contains two proteins, LBP-1 (17.2kDa) and LBP-2 (26.0kDa) that:bond to the surfaces of the insect pathogenic bacteria, Xenorhabdus nematophilus;prevented lipid A-binding dye attaching to the lipid A of X. nematophilus endotoxin; andreduced endotoxin activity on the haemocytes.Protein LBP-1 also blocked the inhibition of prophenoloxidase activation by the endotoxins. It is proposed that proteins LBP-1 and LBP-2 are part of the containment responses of the insects to bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Halwani
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21,111 Lakeshore Road, Ste Anne de Bellevue, PQ, H9X 3V9, Canada
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23
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Downer RG, Moore SJ, L Diehl-Jones W, Mandato CA. The Effects of Eicosanoid Biosynthesis Inhibitors On Prophenoloxidase Activation, Phagocytosis and Cell Spreading in Galleria mellonella. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 1997; 43:1-8. [PMID: 12769924 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1910(96)00100-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The invertebrate immune system produces melanotic nodules in response to bacterial infections and this has previously been shown to be mediated by eicosanoids. Nodulation occurs in two phases: the first involves hemocyte degranulation and activation of the prophenoloxidase cascade; the second involves formation of a cellular capsule by attachment and spreading of hemocytes. We demonstrate that inhibitors of eicosanoid biosynthesis affect both of these phases of nodulation in Galleria mellonella. The phospholipase A(2) inhibitor, dexamethasone, as well as the cyclooxygenase inhibitor, indomethacin, significantly inhibit phagocytosis in vitro and prophenoloxidase activation in vivo. The inhibitory effects of dexamethasone were abolished by the addition of exogenous arachidonic acid. Furthermore, 5,8,11,14- eicosatetraynoic acid, dexamethasone and indomethacin inhibit hemocyte spreading in vitro. The findings support the idea that eicosanoid derivatives mediate both phases of the nodulation response and are consistent with previous studies which attribute roles for eicosanoids in other species as modulators of cell activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G.H. Downer
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
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24
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Johansson MW, Söderhäll K. The prophenoloxidase activating system and associated proteins in invertebrates. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 1996; 15:46-66. [PMID: 8963465 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-79735-4_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we present arguments indicating that prophenoloxidase (proPO) activating system acts as a pattern recognition and defence system in invertebrate blood. Phenoloxidase (PO) activity has been found in the blood of many invertebrates. At least in arthropods, echinoderms and urochordates, the inactive pro-form, proPO has been found to be elicited by the microbial cell-wall components beta-1, 3-glucans, lipopolysaccharide and/or peptidoglycan. This activation seems to involve elicitor-binding proteins and serine protease(s). ProPO, the proPO-activating enzyme (ppA) and plasma elicitor-binding proteins, have been purified from some arthropods, and proPO and the beta-1, 3-glucan binding protein (beta GBP) have been cloned and sequenced from crayfish. Arthropod proPO has a molecular mass of 70-90 kDa and PO has a molecular mass of 60-70 kDa. The beta GBP also stimulates phagocytosis of fungal cells and, after reacting with beta-1, 3-glucan, blood-cell degranulation (and release of the proPO system). In addition, a cell-adhesion protein (of 70-100 kDa), apparently associated with the proPO system, has been purified from arthropods. This mediates blood-cell adhesion, degranulation, phagocytosis and encapsulation. The cell-adhesion protein and beta GBP bind to a common blood-cell membrane receptor. It would be interesting to see the sequences of more proPO system components and investigate whether the scheme for cellular communication and defence, involving the cell-adhesion protein, elicitor-binding proteins and the membrane receptor described in arthropods, applies to invertebrates in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- M W Johansson
- Department of Physiological Botany, University of Uppsala, Sweden
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25
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Activation of the prophenoloxidase system of the brown shrimp Penaeus californiensis Holmes). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(95)02033-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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26
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Lavine MD, Beckage NE. Polydnaviruses: potent mediators of host insect immune dysfunction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995; 11:368-78. [PMID: 15275399 DOI: 10.1016/0169-4758(95)80005-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Endoparasitic insects are used as biological control agents to kill many species of insect pest. One key to the success of parasitoids that develop in the hemocoel of their host is their ability to knock out the host's immune system, inducing a decline in the responsiveness of a variety of cellular and humoral components so that parasitoid eggs are not encapsulated. In many species parasitized by braconid and ichneumonid wasps, host immunosuppression appears to be mediated by polydnaviruses (PDVs) injected by the female parasitoid into the host hemocoel. The viruses exhibit a complex and intimate genetic relationship with the wasp, since viral sequences are integrated within the wasp's chromosomal DNA. Here Mark Lavine and Nancy Beckage summarize the current evidence for mechanisms of virally induced host immunosuppression in parasitized insects, as well as the roles of other factors including wasp ovarian proteins and venom components, in suppressing hemocyte-mediated and humoral immune responses. Interestingly, in some species, the PDV-induced host immunosuppression appears transitory, with older parasitoid larvae probably exploiting other mechanisms to protect themselves from the host's immune system during the final stages of parasitism. During the final stages of parasitism, the parasitoids likely exploit other mechanisms of immunoevasion via antigen masking, antigen mimicry, or production of active inhibitors of the hemocyte-mediated encapsulation response as well as inhibiting melanization.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Lavine
- Department of Biology, University of California-Riverside, 92521-0314, USA
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27
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Lee MJ, Anstee JH. Phenoloxidase and its zymogen from the haemolymph of larvae of the lepidopteran Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(94)00159-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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28
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Falleiros AM, Gregório EA. Hemócitos fagocitários em larvas de Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1590/s0101-81751995000400004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Vargas-Albores F, Guzmán MA, Ochoa JL. An anticoagulant solution for haemolymph collection and prophenoloxidase studies of penaeid shrimp (Penaeus californiensis). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0300-9629(93)90516-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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30
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Changes in hemolymph of the migratory grasshopper, Melanoplus sanguinipes, infected with an entomopoxvirus. J Invertebr Pathol 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(92)90009-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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31
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Dunphy GB, Bourchier RS. Responses of nonimmune larvae of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, to bacteria and the influence of tannic acid. J Invertebr Pathol 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(92)90149-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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32
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Tsukamoto T, Ichimaru Y, Kanegae N, Watanabe K, Yamaura I, Katsura Y, Funatsu M. Identification and isolation of endogenous insect phenoloxidase inhibitors. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992; 184:86-92. [PMID: 1567460 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(92)91161-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitors of phenoloxidase were identified in pupae of the housefly, Musca domestica L. The phenoloxidase inhibitors were purified from final instar pupae of the housefly by a combination of ammonium sulfate fractionation, ion-exchange chromatography, gel filtration and reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. The potent phenoloxidase inhibitors were heat-stable low molecular weight peptides with an inhibition constant of nM range. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that endogenous phenoloxidase inhibitors have been identified among the insects, and probably also among the invertebrates. It is likely that the inhibitors play a central role in regulating the action of active phenoloxidases and will also serve as important tools for understanding the structures and functions of phenoloxidases, as well as their role in insect metamorphosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Tsukamoto
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Saga University, Japan
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33
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Dunphy GB, Webster JM. Antihemocytic surface components of Xenorhabdus nematophilus var. dutki and their modification by serum of nonimmune larvae of Galleria mellonella. J Invertebr Pathol 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(91)90160-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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34
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Brey PT, Stoltz DB, Cook DI, Ashida M. Use of nitrocellulose membrane to activate and measure insect prophenol oxidase. Anal Biochem 1991; 194:359-64. [PMID: 1907436 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(91)90241-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A method for the activation and measurement of insect prophenol oxidase using nitrocellulose membrane is presented. Using this method we were able to conveniently activate both crude and purified prophenol oxidase from insects belonging to three different orders. This rapid method allows for prophenol oxidase activation, in the absence of a prophenol oxidase-activating system, and in the presence of high ionic strength, protease inhibitors, or chelator.
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Affiliation(s)
- P T Brey
- Biochemistry-Laboratory, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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35
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Phenoloxidase activity in the serum of two species of insects, the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (lymantriidae) and the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella (pyralidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(91)90249-d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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36
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37
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Rowley AF, Brookman JL, Ratcliffe NA. Possible involvement of the prophenoloxidase system of the locust, Locusta migratoria, in antimicrobial activity. J Invertebr Pathol 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(90)90141-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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38
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Ashida M, Kinoshita K, Brey PT. Studies on prophenoloxidase activation in the mosquito Aedes aegypti L. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1990; 188:507-15. [PMID: 2110057 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1990.tb15429.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
This study, the first of its kind in a mosquito vector species, demonstrates the feasibility of studying prophenoloxidase activation in an insect containing not more than a few microliters of hemolymph. Mosquito phenoloxidase was found to be in an inactive proenzyme form, prophenoloxidase. Mosquito prophenoloxidase required bivalent cation for its activation; Ca2+ was found to be the most efficient for activation. Concomitant amidase activity was also observed prior to phenoloxidase activity. Through Western blotting, using a cross-reactive silkworm antiprophenoloxidase antibody, our results strongly suggest that mosquito prophenoloxidase activation resulted from limited proteolysis. Protease inhibitor studies reinforced this contention showing the involvement of (a) serine protease(s) with trypsin-like activity in the activation of mosquito prophenoloxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ashida
- Unité de Lutte Biologique contre les Insectes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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39
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Brookman JL, Rowley AF, Ratcliffe NA. Studies on nodule formation in locusts following injection of microbial products. J Invertebr Pathol 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(89)90095-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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