Electron transfer mechanisms of flavine adenine dinucleotide at the glassy carbon electrode; a model study for protein electrochemistry

Immobilization of Glucose Oxidase on Glutathione Capped CdTe Quantum Dots for Bioenergy Generation

An efficient immobilization of Glucose oxidase (GOx) on an appropriate substrate is one of the main challenges of developing fuel cells that allow energy to be obtained from renewable substrates such as carbohydrates in physiological environments. The research importance of biofuel cells relies on their experimental robustness and high compatibility with biological organisms such as tissues or the bloodstream with the aim of obtaining electrical energy even from living systems. In this work, we report the use of 5,10,15,20 tetrakis (1-methyl-4-pyridinium) porphyrin and glutathione capped CdTe Quantum dots (GSH-CdTeQD) as a support matrix for the immobilization of GOx on carbon surfaces. Fluorescent GSH-CdTeQD particles were synthesized and their characterization by UV-Vis spectrophotometry showed a particle size between 5–7 nm, which was confirmed by DLS and TEM measurements. Graphite and Toray paper electrodes were modified by a drop coating of porphyrin, GSH-CdTeQD and GOx, and their electrochemical activity toward glucose oxidation was evaluated by cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Additionally, GOx modified electrode activity was explored by scanning electrochemical microscopy, finding that near to 70% of the surface was covered with active enzyme. The modified electrodes showed a glucose sensitivity of 0.58 ± 0.01 μA/mM and an apparent Michaelis constant of 7.8 mM. The addition of BSA blocking protein maintained the current response of common interferent molecules such as ascorbic acid (AA) with less than a 5% of interference percentage. Finally, the complex electrodes were employed as anodes in a microfluidic biofuel cell (μBFC) in order to evaluate the performance in energy production. The enzymatic anodes used in the μBFC allowed us to obtain a current density of 7.53 mAcm−2 at the maximum power density of 2.30 mWcm−2; an open circuit potential of 0.57 V was observed in the biofuel cell. The results obtained suggest that the support matrix porphyrin and GSH-CdTeQD is appropriate to immobilize GOx while preserving the enzyme’s catalytic activity. The reported electrode arrangement is a viable option for bioenergy production and/or glucose quantification.

Modeling biofilms with dual extracellular electron transfer mechanisms

Electrochemically active biofilms have a unique form of respiration in which they utilize solid external materials as terminal electron acceptors for their metabolism. Currently, two primary mechanisms have been identified for long-range extracellular electron transfer (EET): a diffusion- and a conduction-based mechanism. Evidence in the literature suggests that some biofilms, particularly Shewanella oneidensis, produce the requisite components for both mechanisms. In this study, a generic model is presented that incorporates the diffusion- and the conduction-based mechanisms and allows electrochemically active biofilms to utilize both simultaneously. The model was applied to S. oneidensis and Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms using experimentally generated data found in the literature. Our simulation results show that (1) biofilms having both mechanisms available, especially if they can interact, may have a metabolic advantage over biofilms that can use only a single mechanism; (2) the thickness of G. sulfurreducens biofilms is likely not limited by conductivity; (3) accurate intrabiofilm diffusion coefficient values are critical for current generation predictions; and (4) the local biofilm potential and redox potential are two distinct parameters and cannot be assumed to have identical values. Finally, we determined that simulated cyclic and squarewave voltammetry based on our model are currently not capable of determining the specific percentages of extracellular electron transfer mechanisms in a biofilm. The developed model will be a critical tool for designing experiments to explain EET mechanisms.

Electrochemical behavior of flavin adenine dinucleotide adsorbed onto carbon nanotube and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube electrodes

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a cofactor for many enzymes, but also an informative redox active surface probe for electrode materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nitrogen-doped CNTs (N-CNTs). FAD spontaneously adsorbs onto the surface of CNTs and N-CNTs, displaying Langmuir adsorption characteristics. The Langmuir adsorption model provides a means of calculating the electroactive surface area (ESA), the equilibrium constant for the adsorption and desorption processes (K), and the Gibbs free energy of adsorption (ΔG°). Traditional ESA measurements based on the diffusional flux of a redox active molecule to the electrode surface underestimate the ESA of porous materials because pores are not penetrated. Techniques such as gas adsortion (BET) overestimate the ESA because it includes both electroactive and inactive areas. The ESA determined by extrapolation of the Langmuir adsorption model with the electroactive surface probe FAD will penetrate pores and only include electroactive areas. The redox activity of adsorbed FAD also displays a strong dependency on pH, which provides a means of determining the pKa of the surface confined species. The pKa of FAD decreases as the nitrogen content in the CNTs increases, suggesting a decreased hydrophobicity of the N-CNT surface. FAD desorption at N-CNTs slowly transforms the main FAD surface redox reaction with E1/2 at -0.84 V into two new, reversible, surface confined redox reactions with E1/2 at -0.65 and -0.76 V (vs Hg/Hg2SO4), respectively (1.0 M sodium phosphate buffer pH = 6.75). This is the first time these redox reactions have been observed. The new surface confined redox reactions were not observed during FAD desorption from nondoped CNTs.

Influence of surface adsorption on the interfacial electron transfer of flavin adenine dinucleotide and glucose oxidase at carbon nanotube and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube electrodes

The adsorption of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and glucose oxidase (GOx) onto carbon nanotube (CNT) and nitrogen-doped CNT (N-CNT) electrodes was investigated and found to obey Langmuir adsorption isotherm characteristics. The amount adsorbed and adsorption maximum are dependent on exposure time, the concentration of adsorbate, and the ionic strength of the solution. The formal potentials measured for FAD and GOx are identical, indicating that the observed electroactivity is from FAD, the redox reaction center of GOx. When glucose is added to GOx adsorbed onto CNT/N-CNT electrodes, direct electron transfer (DET) from enzyme-active FAD is not observed. However, efficient mediated electron transfer (MET) occurs if an appropriate electron mediator is placed in solution, or the natural electron mediator oxygen is used, indicating that GOx is adsorbed and active on CNT/N-CNT electrodes. The observed surface-confined redox reaction at both CNT and N-CNT electrodes is from FAD that either specifically adsorbs from solution or adsorbs from the holoprotein subsequently inactivating the enzyme. The splitting of cathodic and anodic peak potentials as a function of scan rate provides a way to measure the heterogeneous electron-transfer rate constant (k(s)) using Laviron's method. However, the measured k(s) was found to be under ohmic control, not under the kinetic control of an electron-transfer reaction, suggesting that k(s) for FAD on CNTs is faster than the measured value of 7.6 s(-1).

Modification of glassy carbon electrode with a polymer/mediator composite and its application for the electrochemical detection of iodate

A modified glassy carbon electrode was prepared by depositing a composite of polymer and mediator on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The mediator, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and the polymer, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) were electrochemically deposited as a composite on the GCE by applying cyclic voltammetry (CV). This modified electrode is hereafter designated as GCE/PEDOT/FAD. FAD was found to significantly enhance the growth of PEDOT. Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) analysis was performed to study the mass changes in the electrode during the electrodeposition of PEDOT, with and without the addition of FAD. The optimal cycle number for preparing the modified electrode was determined to be 9, and the corresponding surface coverage of FAD (Γ(FAD)) was ca. 5.11×10(-10)mol cm(-2). The amperometric detection of iodate was performed in a 100 mM buffer solution (pH 1.5). The GCE/PEDOT/FAD showed a sensitivity of 0.78 μA μM(-1) cm(-2), a linear range of 4-140 μM, and a limit of detection of 0.16 μM for iodate. The interference effects of 250-fold Na(+), Mg(2+), Ca(2+), Zn(2+), Fe(2+), Cl(-), NO(3)(-), I(-), SO(4)(2-) and SO(3)(2-), with reference to the concentration of iodate were negligible. The long-term stability of GCE/PEDOT/FAD was also investigated. The GCE/PEDOT/FAD electrode retained 82% of its initial amperometric response to iodate after 7 days. The GCE/PEDOT/FAD was also applied to determine iodate in a commercial salt.

A VOLTAMMETRIC FLAVIN MICROELECTRODE FOR USE IN BIOFILMS

Biofilms used in bioelectrochemical systems are expected to transfer electrons using electron transfer mediators. One mediator type, flavins, which includes flavin mononucleotide, riboflavin, and flavin adenine dinucleotide, has been found to be endogenously produced by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. However, the presence and concentration of flavins inside a S. oneidensis MR-1 biofilm have never been reported. The goal of this study was to develop a flavin microelectrode capable of measuring flavins inside a living biofilm and apply it to a biofilm which produces flavins. Because flavins are electrochemically active molecules, the flavin microelectrode was based on detection via square-wave voltammetry. The microelectrode consisted of a carbon working electrode with a 10-30 μm tip diameter, a built-in platinum counter electrode, and a Ag/AgCl reference electrode, all enclosed in a glass outer case. The microelectrode was calibrated between 0.1 μM and 10 μM flavins and showed a linear correlation between flavin concentration and peak currents located at -424 mV(Ag/AgCl) on a square-wave voltammogram. We also developed a model to explain the electrochemical mechanism of flavin detection, and to determine the effective surface area of the microelectrode, the standard reduction potential, and the transfer coefficient. We found that the effective surface area of the microelectrode was close to 100 times the projected surface area. The model predicted a standard reduction potential for RF/RFH2 of -419 mV(Ag/AgCl) at 20 °C and a transfer coefficient of 0.45. Lastly, we measured flavin concentration inside a S. oneidensis MR-1 biofilm grown on a glass surface using oxygen as the electron acceptor. The flavin concentration reached 0.7 μM, increasing near the bottom of the biofilm, where no oxygen was present. This shows the possibility that flavins are produced in the anaerobic zone to act as intermediate electron acceptors in the deeper parts of the biofilm, where there is no oxygen.

Electrochemically active biofilms: facts and fiction. A review

This review examines the electrochemical techniques used to study extracellular electron transfer in the electrochemically active biofilms that are used in microbial fuel cells and other bioelectrochemical systems. Electrochemically active biofilms are defined as biofilms that exchange electrons with conductive surfaces: electrodes. Following the electrochemical conventions, and recognizing that electrodes can be considered reactants in these bioelectrochemical processes, biofilms that deliver electrons to the biofilm electrode are called anodic, ie electrode-reducing, biofilms, while biofilms that accept electrons from the biofilm electrode are called cathodic, ie electrode-oxidizing, biofilms. How to grow these electrochemically active biofilms in bioelectrochemical systems is discussed and also the critical choices made in the experimental setup that affect the experimental results. The reactor configurations used in bioelectrochemical systems research are also described and the authors demonstrate how to use selected voltammetric techniques to study extracellular electron transfer in bioelectrochemical systems. Finally, some critical concerns with the proposed electron transfer mechanisms in bioelectrochemical systems are addressed together with the prospects of bioelectrochemical systems as energy-converting and energy-harvesting devices.

Mediator-free amperometric glucose biosensor based on glucose oxidase entrapped in poly(vinyl alcohol) matrix

A simple and novel amperometric biosensor for glucose detection is proposed. It is based on the immobilization of glucose oxidase (GOx) in a poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) matrix directly drop casted on a platinum electrode surface (Pt/GOx-PVA). Glucose was determined in the absence of a mediator used to transfer electrons between the electrode and the enzyme. The correlation between peak current (i(p)) and scan rate has been verified and the effect of pH solution has been checked. Glucose detection has been performed amperometrically at -400 mV by using pulsed amperometric detection (PAD). Under the selected optimal conditions, the biosensor showed low detection limit (10 μM), wide dynamic range (0.1-37 mM) and high sensitivity. The biosensor amperometric response revealed it to be specific to glucose without significant interference from other sugars and electroactive species coexisting with glucose in biological fluids. Response stability was another interesting feature of the developed system as it was almost completely recovered when the biosensor was left in opportune storage conditions (i.e., a response decrease of only 13% after 35 days in air at room temperature). Finally, X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) characterization revealed a homogeneous film deposited on the Pt substrate whose structure is also preserved under operative conditions.

Interaction of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) with a glassy carbon electrode surface

The interaction of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) with a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface was investigated in terms of the FAD adsorption thermodynamics and kinetics, the subsequent electroreduction mechanism, and the corresponding electron-transfer rate. The kinetics of FAD electroreduction at the GCE was found to be an adsorption-controlled process. A set of electroreduction kinetic parameters was calculated: the true number of electrons involved in the FAD reduction, n=1.76, the apparent transfer coefficient, alpha(app)=0.41, and the apparent heterogeneous electron-transfer rate constant, k(app)=1.4 s(-1). The deviation of the number of exchanged electrons from the theoretical value for the complete reduction of FAD to FADH(2) (n=2) indicates that a small portion of FAD goes to a semiquinone state during the redox process. The FAD adsorption was well described by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. The large negative apparent Gibbs energy of adsorption (DeltaG(ads)=-39.7 +/-0.4 kJ mol(-1)) indicated a highly spontaneous and strong adsorption of FAD on the GCE. The energetics of the adsorption process was found to be independent of the electrode surface charge in the electrochemical double-layer region. The kinetics of FAD adsorption was modeled using a pseudo-first-order kinetic model.

Preliminary electrochemical studies of the flavohaemoprotein from Ralstonia eutropha entrapped in a film of methyl cellulose: Activation of the reduction of dioxygen

A flavohaemoprotein (FHP) from Ralstonia eutropha, obtained in a pure and active form, has been entrapped in a film of methyl cellulose on the electrode surface and gives a stable and reproducible electrochemical response at pH 7.00 when subject to cyclic voltammetry using a glassy carbon electrode. To our knowledge, no previous direct electrochemistry had been achieved with a bacterial flavohaemoglobin, which possess both a FAD and a haem. A single couple is observed which is assigned to the haem moiety of the protein, since the same result is obtained with a semi-apo form of the protein deprived of FAD (semi-apo FHP). The data collected were further confirmed by potentiometry with a platinum electrode, and the homogeneous electron transfer rate estimated by double potential step chronocoulometry at a bare glassy carbon electrode in the presence of methyl viologen (MV). The presence of FAD in the holoprotein is easily confirmed by UV-Vis spectrophotometry, but its expected electron relay role remains elusive. The protein activates the reduction of dioxygen by about 400 mV, the reduction current being proportional to the concentration of dioxygen up to 10% in volume in the gas mixture.