Organization and sequence of the hsd genes of Escherichia coli K-12

ClpXP protease targets long-lived DNA translocation states of a helicase-like motor to cause restriction alleviation

We investigated how Escherichia coli ClpXP targets the helicase-nuclease (HsdR) subunit of the bacterial Type I restriction–modification enzyme EcoKI during restriction alleviation (RA). RA is a temporary reduction in endonuclease activity that occurs when Type I enzymes bind unmodified recognition sites on the host genome. These conditions arise upon acquisition of a new system by a naïve host, upon generation of new sites by genome rearrangement/mutation or during homologous recombination between hemimethylated DNA. Using recombinant DNA and proteins in vitro, we demonstrate that ClpXP targets EcoKI HsdR during dsDNA translocation on circular DNA but not on linear DNA. Protein roadblocks did not activate HsdR proteolysis. We suggest that DNA translocation lifetime, which is elevated on circular DNA relative to linear DNA, is important to RA. To identify the ClpX degradation tag (degron) in HsdR, we used bioinformatics and biochemical assays to design N- and C-terminal mutations that were analysed in vitro and in vivo. None of the mutants produced a phenotype consistent with loss of the degron, suggesting an as-yet-unidentified recognition pathway. We note that an EcoKI nuclease mutant still produces cell death in a clpx⁻ strain, consistent with DNA damage induced by unregulated motor activity.

Highlights of the DNA cutters: a short history of the restriction enzymes

In the early 1950's, 'host-controlled variation in bacterial viruses' was reported as a non-hereditary phenomenon: one cycle of viral growth on certain bacterial hosts affected the ability of progeny virus to grow on other hosts by either restricting or enlarging their host range. Unlike mutation, this change was reversible, and one cycle of growth in the previous host returned the virus to its original form. These simple observations heralded the discovery of the endonuclease and methyltransferase activities of what are now termed Type I, II, III and IV DNA restriction-modification systems. The Type II restriction enzymes (e.g. EcoRI) gave rise to recombinant DNA technology that has transformed molecular biology and medicine. This review traces the discovery of restriction enzymes and their continuing impact on molecular biology and medicine.

The other face of restriction: modification-dependent enzymes

The 1952 observation of host-induced non-hereditary variation in bacteriophages by Salvador Luria and Mary Human led to the discovery in the 1960s of modifying enzymes that glucosylate hydroxymethylcytosine in T-even phages and of genes encoding corresponding host activities that restrict non-glucosylated phage DNA: rglA and rglB (restricts glucoseless phage). In the 1980’s, appreciation of the biological scope of these activities was dramatically expanded with the demonstration that plant and animal DNA was also sensitive to restriction in cloning experiments. The rgl genes were renamed mcrA and mcrBC (modified cytosine restriction). The new class of modification-dependent restriction enzymes was named Type IV, as distinct from the familiar modification-blocked Types I–III. A third Escherichia coli enzyme, mrr (modified DNA rejection and restriction) recognizes both methylcytosine and methyladenine. In recent years, the universe of modification-dependent enzymes has expanded greatly. Technical advances allow use of Type IV enzymes to study epigenetic mechanisms in mammals and plants. Type IV enzymes recognize modified DNA with low sequence selectivity and have emerged many times independently during evolution. Here, we review biochemical and structural data on these proteins, the resurgent interest in Type IV enzymes as tools for epigenetic research and the evolutionary pressures on these systems.

Generation of biologically contained, readily transformable, and genetically manageable mutants of the biotechnologically important Bacillus pumilus

Bacillus pumilus mutants were generated by targeted deletion of a set of genes eventually facilitating genetic handling and assuring biological containment. The well-defined and stable mutants do not form functional endospores due to the deletion of yqfD, an essential sporulation gene; they are affected in DNA repair, as ΔuvrBA rendered them UV hypersensitive and, thus, biologically contained; they are deficient for the uracil phosphoribosyl-transferase (Δupp), allowing for 5-fluorouracil-based counterselection facilitating rapid allelic exchanges; and they are readily transformable due to the deletion of the restrictase encoding locus (ΔhsdR) of a type I restriction modification system. Vegetative growth as well as extracellular enzyme production and secretion are in no case affected. The combination of such gene deletions allows for development of B. pumilus strains suited for industrial use and further improvements.

Removal of a frameshift between the hsdM and hsdS genes of the EcoKI Type IA DNA restriction and modification system produces a new type of system and links the different families of Type I systems

The EcoKI DNA methyltransferase is a trimeric protein comprised of two modification subunits (M) and one sequence specificity subunit (S). This enzyme forms the core of the EcoKI restriction/modification (RM) enzyme. The 3' end of the gene encoding the M subunit overlaps by 1 nt the start of the gene for the S subunit. Translation from the two different open reading frames is translationally coupled. Mutagenesis to remove the frameshift and fuse the two subunits together produces a functional RM enzyme in vivo with the same properties as the natural EcoKI system. The fusion protein can be purified and forms an active restriction enzyme upon addition of restriction subunits and of additional M subunit. The Type I RM systems are grouped into families, IA to IE, defined by complementation, hybridization and sequence similarity. The fusion protein forms an evolutionary intermediate form lying between the Type IA family of RM enzymes and the Type IB family of RM enzymes which have the frameshift located at a different part of the gene sequence.

Recycling of protein subunits during DNA translocation and cleavage by Type I restriction-modification enzymes

The Type I restriction-modification enzymes comprise three protein subunits; HsdS and HsdM that form a methyltransferase (MTase) and HsdR that associates with the MTase and catalyses Adenosine-5′-triphosphate (ATP)-dependent DNA translocation and cleavage. Here, we examine whether the MTase and HsdR components can ‘turnover’ in vitro, i.e. whether they can catalyse translocation and cleavage events on one DNA molecule, dissociate and then re-bind a second DNA molecule. Translocation termination by both EcoKI and EcoR124I leads to HsdR dissociation from linear DNA but not from circular DNA. Following DNA cleavage, the HsdR subunits appear unable to dissociate even though the DNA is linear, suggesting a tight interaction with the cleaved product. The MTases of EcoKI and EcoAI can dissociate from DNA following either translocation or cleavage and can initiate reactions on new DNA molecules as long as free HsdR molecules are available. In contrast, the MTase of EcoR124I does not turnover and additional cleavage of circular DNA is not observed by inclusion of RecBCD, a helicase–nuclease that degrades the linear DNA product resulting from Type I cleavage. Roles for Type I restriction endonuclease subunit dynamics in restriction alleviation in the cell are discussed.

Characterization of a restriction modification system from the commensal Escherichia coli strain A0 34/86 (O83:K24:H31)

Background

Type I restriction-modification (R-M) systems are the most complex restriction enzymes discovered to date. Recent years have witnessed a renaissance of interest in R-M enzymes Type I. The massive ongoing sequencing programmes leading to discovery of, so far, more than 1 000 putative enzymes in a broad range of microorganisms including pathogenic bacteria, revealed that these enzymes are widely represented in nature. The aim of this study was characterisation of a putative R-M system EcoA0ORF42P identified in the commensal Escherichia coli A0 34/86 (O83: K24: H31) strain, which is efficiently used at Czech paediatric clinics for prophylaxis and treatment of nosocomial infections and diarrhoea of preterm and newborn infants.

Results

We have characterised a restriction-modification system EcoA0ORF42P of the commensal Escherichia coli strain A0 34/86 (O83: K24: H31). This system, designated as EcoAO83I, is a new functional member of the Type IB family, whose specificity differs from those of known Type IB enzymes, as was demonstrated by an immunological cross-reactivity and a complementation assay. Using the plasmid transformation method and the RM search computer program, we identified the DNA recognition sequence of the EcoAO83I as GGA(8N)ATGC. In consistence with the amino acids alignment data, the 3' TRD component of the recognition sequence is identical to the sequence recognized by the EcoEI enzyme. The A-T (modified adenine) distance is identical to that in the EcoAI and EcoEI recognition sites, which also indicates that this system is a Type IB member. Interestingly, the recognition sequence we determined here is identical to the previously reported prototype sequence for Eco377I and its isoschizomers.

Conclusion

Putative restriction-modification system EcoA0ORF42P in the commensal Escherichia coli strain A0 34/86 (O83: K24: H31) was found to be a member of the Type IB family and was designated as EcoAO83I. Combination of the classical biochemical and bacterial genetics approaches with comparative genomics might contribute effectively to further classification of many other putative Type-I enzymes, especially in clinical samples.

Plasmid-encoded antirestriction protein ArdA can discriminate between type I methyltransferase and complete restriction-modification system

Many promiscuous plasmids encode the antirestriction proteins ArdA (alleviation of restriction of DNA) that specifically affect the restriction activity of heterooligomeric type I restriction-modification (R-M) systems in Escherichia coli cells. In addition, a lot of the putative ardA genes encoded by plasmids and bacterial chromosomes are found as a result of sequencing of complete genomic sequences, suggesting that ArdA proteins and type I R-M systems that seem to be widespread among bacteria may be involved in the regulation of gene transfer among bacterial genomes. Here, the mechanism of antirestriction action of ArdA encoded by IncI plasmid ColIb-P9 has been investigated in comparison with that of well-studied T7 phage-encoded antirestriction protein Ocr using the mutational analysis, retardation assay and His-tag affinity chromatography. Like Ocr, ArdA protein was shown to be able to efficiently interact with EcoKI R-M complex and affect its in vivo and in vitro restriction activity by preventing its interaction with specific DNA. However, unlike Ocr, ArdA protein has a low binding affinity to EcoKI Mtase and the additional C-terminal tail region (VF-motif) is needed for ArdA to efficiently interact with the type I R-M enzymes. It seems likely that this ArdA feature is a basis for its ability to discriminate between activities of EcoKI Mtase (modification) and complete R-M system (restriction) which may interact with unmodified DNA in the cells independently. These findings suggest that ArdA may provide a very effective and delicate control for the restriction and modification activities of type I systems and its ability to discriminate against DNA restriction in favour of the specific modification of DNA may give some advantage for efficient transmission of the ardA-encoding promiscuous plasmids among different bacterial populations.

Subunit assembly modulates the activities of the Type III restriction-modification enzyme PstII in vitro

We demonstrate that, like other Type III restriction endonuclease, PstII does not turnover such that a DNA substrate is only fully cleaved at a Res2Mod2-to-site ratio of approximately 1:1. However, unlike other Type III enzymes, the cleavage rate profiles varied with protein concentration: using 5 nM DNA and 25 nM PstII, approximately half of the DNA was cut at a fast rate while the remainder was cut 24 times more slowly; in comparison, with 100 nM PstII cleavage occurs at a single fast rate. The inclusion of the methyl donor S-adenosyl methionine does not alter the rates with 100 nM PstII but with 25 nM PstII the reaction stopped after completion of the initial fast cleavage phase owing to methylation. Concentration-dependent rates were also observed in methylation assays: at 100 nM PstII, a single slow rate was measured while at lower PstII concentrations both fast and slow rates were measured. We propose a model in which the intact Res2Mod2 complex favoured at high PstII concentrations is a fast endonuclease/slow methyltransferase while the various subassemblies which coexist at lower concentrations are fast methyltransferases. A potential role for disassembly in control of restriction activity in vivo is discussed.

KpnBI is the prototype of a new family (IE) of bacterial type I restriction-modification system

KpnBI is a restriction-modification (R-M) system recognized in the GM236 strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Here, the KpnBI modification genes were cloned into a plasmid using a modification expression screening method. The modification genes that consist of both hsdM (2631 bp) and hsdS (1344 bp) genes were identified on an 8.2 kb EcoRI chromosomal fragment. These two genes overlap by one base and share the same promoter located upstream of the hsdM gene. Using recently developed plasmid R-M tests and a computer program RM Search, the DNA recognition sequence for the KpnBI enzymes was identified as a new 8 nt sequence containing one degenerate base with a 6 nt spacer, CAAANNNNNNRTCA. From Dam methylation and HindIII sensitivity tests, the methylation loci were predicted to be the italicized third adenine in the 5' specific region and the adenine opposite the italicized thymine in the 3' specific region. Combined with previous sequence data for hsdR, we concluded that the KpnBI system is a typical type I R-M system. The deduced amino acid sequences of the three subunits of the KpnBI system show only limited homologies (25 to 33% identity) at best, to the four previously categorized type I families (IA, IB, IC, and ID). Furthermore, their identity scores to other uncharacterized putative genome type I sequences were 53% at maximum. Therefore, we propose that KpnBI is the prototype of a new 'type IE' family.

Cellular localization of Type I restriction-modification enzymes is family dependent

Cellular localization of Type I restriction-modification enzymes EcoKI, EcoAI, and EcoR124I-the most frequently studied representatives of IA, IB, and IC families-was analyzed by immunoblotting of subcellular fractions isolated from Escherichia coli strains harboring the corresponding hsd genes. EcoR124I shows characteristics similar to those of EcoKI. The complex enzymes are associated with the cytoplasmic membrane via DNA interaction as documented by the release of the Hsd subunits from the membrane into the soluble fraction following benzonase treatment. HsdR subunits of the membrane-bound enzymes EcoKI and EcoR124I are accessible, though to a different extent, at the external surface of cytoplasmic membrane as shown by trypsinization of intact spheroplasts. EcoAI strongly differs from EcoKI and EcoR124I, since neither benzonase nor trypsin affects its association with the cytoplasmic membrane. Possible reasons for such a different organization are discussed in relation of the control of the restriction-modification activities in vivo.

Tracking EcoKI and DNA fifty years on: a golden story full of surprises

1953 was a historical year for biology, as it marked the birth of the DNA helix, but also a report by Bertani and Weigle on 'a barrier to infection' of bacteriophage lambda in its natural host, Escherichia coli K-12, that could be lifted by 'host-controlled variation' of the virus. This paper lay dormant till Nobel laureate Arber and PhD student Dussoix showed that the lambda DNA was rejected and degraded upon infection of different bacterial hosts, unless it carried host-specific modification of that DNA, thus laying the foundations for the phenomenon of restriction and modification (R-M). The restriction enzyme of E.coli K-12, EcoKI, was purified in 1968 and required S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) and ATP as cofactors. By the end of the decade there was substantial evidence for a chromosomal locus hsdK with three genes encoding restriction (R), modification (M) and specificity (S) subunits that assembled into a large complex of >400 kDa. The 1970s brought the message that EcoKI cut away from its DNA recognition target, to which site the enzyme remained bound while translocating the DNA past itself, with concomitant ATP hydrolysis and subsequent double-strand nicks. This translocation event created clearly visible DNA loops in the electron microscope. EcoKI became the archetypal Type I R-M enzyme with curious DNA translocating properties reminiscent of helicases, recognizing the bipartite asymmetric site AAC(N6)GTGC. Cloning of the hsdK locus in 1976 facilitated molecular understanding of this sophisticated R-M complex and in an elegant 'pas de deux' Murray and Dryden constructed the present model based on a large body of experimental data plus bioinformatics. This review celebrates the golden anniversary of EcoKI and ends with the exciting progress on the vital issue of restriction alleviation after DNA damage, also first reported in 1953, which involves intricate control of R subunit activity by the bacterial proteasome ClpXP, important results that will keep scientists on the EcoKI track for another 50 years to come.

Nucleoside triphosphate-dependent restriction enzymes

The known nucleoside triphosphate-dependent restriction enzymes are hetero-oligomeric proteins that behave as molecular machines in response to their target sequences. They translocate DNA in a process dependent on the hydrolysis of a nucleoside triphosphate. For the ATP-dependent type I and type III restriction and modification systems, the collision of translocating complexes triggers hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds in unmodified DNA to generate double-strand breaks. Type I endonucleases break the DNA at unspecified sequences remote from the target sequence, type III endonucleases at a fixed position close to the target sequence. Type I and type III restriction and modification (R-M) systems are notable for effective post-translational control of their endonuclease activity. For some type I enzymes, this control is mediated by proteolytic degradation of that subunit of the complex which is essential for DNA translocation and breakage. This control, lacking in the well-studied type II R-M systems, provides extraordinarily effective protection of resident DNA should it acquire unmodified target sequences. The only well-documented GTP-dependent restriction enzyme, McrBC, requires methylated target sequences for the initiation of phosphodiester bond cleavage.

Type I restriction systems: sophisticated molecular machines (a legacy of Bertani and Weigle)

Restriction enzymes are well known as reagents widely used by molecular biologists for genetic manipulation and analysis, but these reagents represent only one class (type II) of a wider range of enzymes that recognize specific nucleotide sequences in DNA molecules and detect the provenance of the DNA on the basis of specific modifications to their target sequence. Type I restriction and modification (R-M) systems are complex; a single multifunctional enzyme can respond to the modification state of its target sequence with the alternative activities of modification or restriction. In the absence of DNA modification, a type I R-M enzyme behaves like a molecular motor, translocating vast stretches of DNA towards itself before eventually breaking the DNA molecule. These sophisticated enzymes are the focus of this review, which will emphasize those aspects that give insights into more general problems of molecular and microbial biology. Current molecular experiments explore target recognition, intramolecular communication, and enzyme activities, including DNA translocation. Type I R-M systems are notable for their ability to evolve new specificities, even in laboratory cultures. This observation raises the important question of how bacteria protect their chromosomes from destruction by newly acquired restriction specifities. Recent experiments demonstrate proteolytic mechanisms by which cells avoid DNA breakage by a type I R-M system whenever their chromosomal DNA acquires unmodified target sequences. Finally, the review will reflect the present impact of genomic sequences on a field that has previously derived information almost exclusively from the analysis of bacteria commonly studied in the laboratory.

Localization of the type I restriction-modification enzyme EcoKI in the bacterial cell

To localise the type I restriction-modification (R-M) enzyme EcoKI within the bacterial cell, the Hsd subunits present in subcellular fractions were analysed using immunoblotting techniques. The endonuclease (ENase) as well as the methylase (MTase) were found to be associated with the cytoplasmic membrane. HsdR and HsdM subunits produced individually were soluble, cytoplasmic polypeptides and only became membrane-associated when coproduced with the insoluble HsdS subunit. The release of enzyme from the membrane fraction following benzonase treatment indicated a role for DNA in this interaction. Trypsinization of spheroplasts revealed that the HsdR subunit in the assembled ENase was accessible to protease, while HsdM and HsdS, in both ENase and MTase complexes, were fully protected against digestion. We postulate that the R-M enzyme EcoKI is associated with the cytoplasmic membrane in a manner that allows access of HsdR to the periplasmic space, while the MTase components are localised on the inner side of the plasma membrane.

Linkage map of Escherichia coli K-12, edition 10: the traditional map

This map is an update of the edition 9 map by Berlyn et al. (M. K. B. Berlyn, K. B. Low, and K. E. Rudd, p. 1715-1902, in F. C. Neidhardt et al., ed., Escherichia coli and Salmonella: cellular and molecular biology, 2nd ed., vol. 2, 1996). It uses coordinates established by the completed sequence, expressed as 100 minutes for the entire circular map, and adds new genes discovered and established since 1996 and eliminates those shown to correspond to other known genes. The latter are included as synonyms. An alphabetical list of genes showing map location, synonyms, the protein or RNA product of the gene, phenotypes of mutants, and reference citations is provided. In addition to genes known to correspond to gene sequences, other genes, often older, that are described by phenotype and older mapping techniques and that have not been correlated with sequences are included.

ClpX and ClpP are essential for the efficient acquisition of genes specifying type IA and IB restriction systems

Efficient acquisition of genes that encode a restriction and modification (R-M) system with specificities different from any already present in the recipient bacterium requires the sequential production of the new modification enzyme followed by the restriction activity in order that the chromosome of the recipient bacterium is protected against attack by the restriction endonuclease. We show that ClpX and ClpP, the components of ClpXP protease, are necessary for the efficient transmission of the genes encoding EcoKI and EcoAI, representatives of two families of type I R-M systems, thus implicating ClpXP in the modulation of restriction activity. Loss of ClpX imposed a bigger barrier than loss of ClpP, consistent with a dual role for ClpX, possibly as a chaperone and as a component of the ClpXP protease. Transmission of genes specifying EcoKI was more dependent on ClpX and ClpP than transmission of the genes for EcoAI. Sensitivity to absence of the protease was also influenced by the mode of gene transfer; conjugative transfer and transformation were more dependent on ClpXP than transduction. In the absence of either ClpX or ClpP transfer of the EcoKI genes by P1-mediated transduction was impaired, transfer of the EcoAI genes was not.

The restriction-modification genes of Escherichia coli K-12 may not be selfish: they do not resist loss and are readily replaced by alleles conferring different specificities

Type II restriction and modification (R-M) genes have been described as selfish because they have been shown to impose selection for the maintenance of the plasmid that encodes them. In our experiments, the type I R-M system EcoKI does not behave in the same way. The genes specifying EcoKI are, however, normally residents of the chromosome and therefore our analyses were extended to monitor the deletion of chromosomal genes rather than loss of plasmid vector. If EcoKI were to behave in the same way as the plasmid-encoded type II R-M systems, the loss of the relevant chromosomal genes by mutation or recombination should lead to cell death because the cell would become deficient in modification enzyme and the bacterial chromosome would be vulnerable to the restriction endonuclease. Our data contradict this prediction; they reveal that functional type I R-M genes in the chromosome are readily replaced by mutant alleles and by alleles encoding a type I R-M system of different specificity. The acquisition of allelic genes conferring a new sequence specificity, but not the loss of the resident genes, is dependent on the product of an unlinked gene, one predicted [Prakash-Cheng, A., Chung, S. S. & Ryu, J. (1993) Mol. Gen. Genet. 241, 491-496] to be relevant to control of expression of the genes that encode EcoKI. Our evidence suggests that not all R-M systems are evolving as "selfish" units; rather, the diversity and distribution of the family of type I enzymes we have investigated require an alternative selective pressure.

KpnAI, a new type I restriction-modification system in Klebsiella pneumoniae

The KpnAI restriction-modification (R-M) system has been identified in Klebsiella pneumoniae strain M5a1. The restriction gene of KpnAI was first cloned into pBR322 using an r-m+ M5a1 derivative and phage SBS for screening. Subsequently, an adjacent DNA fragment showing modification activity was cloned into pUC19. A total of 7.2 kb DNA sequencing data revealed three open reading frames, corresponding to hsdR, hsdM and hsdS genes of type I R-M systems. The predicted hsdR, hsdM and hsdS-coded peptides shared 95%, 98% and 44% identity, respectively, with the corresponding peptides of the recently identified StySBLI system, a prototype of the type ID family. This high homology suggests that KpnAI is also a member of the type ID family. The KpnAI system seems to be the first type I system identified in Klebsiella species.

A highly conserved DNA replication module from Streptococcus thermophilus phages is similar in sequence and topology to a module from Lactococcus lactis phages

A highly conserved DNA region extending over 5 kb was observed in Streptococcus thermophilus bacteriophages. Comparative sequencing of one temperate and 26 virulent phages demonstrated in the most extreme case an 18% aa difference for a predicted protein, while the majority of the phages showed fewer, if any aa changes. The relative degree of aa conservation was not homogeneous over the DNA segment investigated. Sequence analysis of the conserved segment revealed genes possibly involved in DNA transactions. Three predicted proteins (orf 233, 443, and 382 gene product (gp)) showed nucleoside triphosphate binding motifs. Orf 443 gp showed in addition a DEAH box motif, characteristically found in a subgroup of helicases, and a variant zinc finger motif known from a phage T7 helicase/primase. Tree analysis classified orf 443 gp as a distant member of the helicase superfamily. Orf 382 gp showed similarity to putative plasmid DNA primases. Downstream of orf 382 a noncoding repeat region was identified that showed similarity to a putative minus origin from a cryptic S. thermophilus plasmid. Four predicted proteins showed not only high degrees of aa identity (34 to 63%) with proteins from Lactococcus lactis phages, but their genes showed a similar topological organization. We interpret this as evidence for a horizontal gene transfer event between phages of the two bacterial genera in the distant past.

BsuCI, a type-I restriction-modification system in Bacillus subtilis

A type-I R-M system was identified in B. subtilis. The genes comprising the system have striking similarity to type-I R-M systems observed in Enterobacteriaceae.

Restriction enzymes in cells, not eppendorfs

Restriction enzymes are essential reagents to molecular biologists, but their relevance to bacterial populations is less obvious. Most bacteria encode restriction and modification systems and these are commonly considered to be a barrier to phage infection. Current evidence also supports a more general role for them in genetic recombination.

Response to UV damage by four Escherichia coli K-12 restriction systems

To understand the role of restriction in regulating gene flow in bacterial populations, we would like to understand the regulation of restriction enzyme activity. Several antirestriction (restriction alleviation) systems are known that reduce the activity of type I restriction enzymes like EcoKI in vivo. Most of these do not act on type II or type III enzymes, but little information is available for the unclassified modification-dependent systems, of which there are three in E. coli K-12. Of particular interest are two physiological controls on type I enzymes: EcoKI restriction is reduced 2 to 3 orders of magnitude following DNA damage, and a similar effect is seen constitutively in Dam- cells. We used the behavior of EcoKI as a control for testing the response to UV treatment of the three endogenous modification-dependent restriction systems of K-12, McrA, McrBC, and Mrr. Two of these were also tested for response to Dam status. We find that all four resident restriction systems show reduced activity following UV treatment, but not in a unified fashion; each response was genetically and physiologically distinct. Possible mechanisms are discussed.

Effect of site-specific modification on restriction endonucleases and DNA modification methyltransferases

Restriction endonucleases have site-specific interactions with DNA that can often be inhibited by site-specific DNA methylation and other site-specific DNA modifications. However, such inhibition cannot generally be predicted. The empirically acquired data on these effects are tabulated for over 320 restriction endonucleases. In addition, a table of known site-specific DNA modification methyltransferases and their specificities is presented along with EMBL database accession numbers for cloned genes.

The domains of a type I DNA methyltransferase. Interactions and role in recognition of DNA methylation

The DNA methyltransferases of type I restriction-modification systems are trimeric enzymes composed of one DNA specificity (S) subunit and two modification (M) subunits. The S subunit contains two large regions, each of which recognizes one part of the split, asymmetrical DNA target sequence. Each M subunit contains an amino acid motif for binding the methyl group donor and cofactor, S-adenosyl methionine. The EcoKI methyltransferase has a strong preference for methylating a hemimethylated DNA target rather than an unmodified target. We have used partial proteolytic digestion of EcoKI methyltransferase to generate polypeptide domains that we have identified by amino acid sequencing. The S subunit was cut into two large, folded domains each containing one DNA binding region. Binding of DNA partially protected the S subunit from digestion. The M subunit was also cut into two large domains joined together by a short flexible loop, and a C-terminal tail region. The short loop contained part of the S-adenosyl methionine binding motif, and cofactor binding protected the loop and the two large domains from proteolysis. The C-terminal domain of M remained associated with the N-terminal domain of the S subunit even after the rest of the protein had been digested. The conformation of the tail region of the M subunit was sensitive to the methylation state of DNA in ternary complexes also containing S-adenosyl methionine, and could differentiate between unmethylated and hemimethylated DNA substrates.

The expression and regulation of hsdK genes after conjugative transfer

The type I restriction and modification genes of Escherichia coli can be transferred to other non-modified strains by conjugation without killing the recipient, implying that the restriction function must be regulated. In this study, two isogenic F' plasmids (r+K and r-K) served as donors in quantitative conjugation experiments with various restriction-deficient strains of E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Conjugation studies with hsd::lacZ operon fusions in F' plasmids indicate that both of the hsdK promoters, p(res) and pmod, express simultaneously following conjugative transfer. Thus these genes do not appear to be regulated at the transcriptional level. A spontaneous mutant of E. coli C was discovered that is presumably killed upon conjugative transfer of the hsdK genes (defined as a Crc- phenotype). The gene that is defective in the mutant was tentatively designated hsdC (control). Hfr gene replacement studies led to the localization of the putative hsdC gene between 6 and 16 min on the E. coli genetic map.

Conservation of motifs within the unusually variable polypeptide sequences of type I restriction and modification enzymes

Type I restriction enzymes comprise three subunits encoded by genes designated hsdR, hsdM, and hsdS; S confers sequence specificity. Three families of enzymes are known and within families, but not between, hsdM and hsdR are conserved. Consequently, interfamily comparisons of M and R sequences focus on regions of putative functional significance, while both inter- and intrafamily comparisons address the origin, nature and role of diversity of type I restriction systems. We have determined the sequence of the hsdR gene for EcoA, thus making available sequences of all three hsd genes of one representative from each family. The predicted R polypeptide sequences share conserved regions with one superfamily of putative helicases, so-called 'DEAD box' proteins; these conserved sequences may be associated with the ATP-dependent translocation of DNA that precedes restriction. We also present hsdM and hsdR sequences for EcoE, a member of the same family as EcoA. The sequences of the M and R genes of EcoA and EcoE are at least as divergent as typical genes from Escherichia coli and Salmonella, perhaps as the result of selection favouring diversity of restriction specificities combined with lateral transfer among different species.

Biology of DNA restriction

Our understanding of the evolution of DNA restriction and modification systems, the control of the expression of the structural genes for the enzymes, and the importance of DNA restriction in the cellular economy has advanced by leaps and bounds in recent years. This review documents these advances for the three major classes of classical restriction and modification systems, describes the discovery of a new class of restriction systems that specifically cut DNA carrying the modification signature of foreign cells, and deals with the mechanisms developed by phages to avoid the restriction systems of their hosts.

Roles of selection and recombination in the evolution of type I restriction-modification systems in enterobacteria

Restriction-modification systems can protect bacteria against viral infection. Sequences of the hsdM gene, encoding one of the three subunits of type I restriction-modification systems, have been determined for four strains of enterobacteria. Comparison with the known sequences of EcoK and EcoR124 indicates that all are homologous, though they fall into three families (exemplified by EcoK, EcoA, and EcoR124), the first two of which are apparently allelic. The extent of amino acid sequence identity between EcoK and EcoA is so low that the genes encoding them might be better termed pseudoalleles; this almost certainly reflects genetic exchange among highly divergent species. Within the EcoK family the ratio of intra- to interspecific divergence is very high. The extent of divergence between the genes from Escherichia coli K-12 and Salmonella typhimurium LT2 is similar to that for other genes with the same level of codon usage bias. In contrast, intraspecific divergence (between E. coli strains B and K-12) is extremely high and may reflect the action of frequency-dependent selection mediated by bacteriophages. There is also evidence of lateral transfer of a short sequence between E. coli and S. typhimurium.

Mutation in the specificity polypeptide of the type I restriction endonuclease R.EcoK that affects subunit assembly

We describe the isolation and characterization of a temperature-sensitive mutation within the hsdS gene of the type I restriction and modification system EcoK. This mutation appears to affect the ability of the HsdR subunit to interact with the HsdS subunit when forming an active endonuclease. We discuss the possibility that this mutant, together with another mutation described previously, may define a discontinuous domain, involved in protein-protein interactions, within the HsdS polypeptide.

Distribution of repetitive DNA sequences in eubacteria and application to fingerprinting of bacterial genomes

Dispersed repetitive DNA sequences have been described recently in eubacteria. To assess the distribution and evolutionary conservation of two distinct prokaryotic repetitive elements, consensus oligonucleotides were used in polymerase chain reaction [PCR] amplification and slot blot hybridization experiments with genomic DNA from diverse eubacterial species. Oligonucleotides matching Repetitive Extragenic Palindromic [REP] elements and Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus [ERIC] sequences were synthesized and tested as opposing PCR primers in the amplification of eubacterial genomic DNA. REP and ERIC consensus oligonucleotides produced clearly resolvable bands by agarose gel electrophoresis following PCR amplification. These band patterns provided unambiguous DNA fingerprints of different eubacterial species and strains. Both REP and ERIC probes hybridized preferentially to genomic DNA from Gram-negative enteric bacteria and related species. Widespread distribution of these repetitive DNA elements in the genomes of various microorganisms should enable rapid identification of bacterial species and strains, and be useful for the analysis of prokaryotic genomes.

Endonuclease (R) subunits of type-I and type-III restriction-modification enzymes contain a helicase-like domain

A statistically significant amino acid sequence similarity is demonstrated between the endonuclease (R) subunit of EcoK restriction-modification (R-M) enzyme, and RNA and DNA helicases of the so-called 'DEAD' family. It is further shown that all three known sequences of R subunits of type-I and type-III R-M enzymes contain the conserved amino acid sequence motifs typical of the previously described helicase superfamily II [(1989) Nucleic Acids Res. 17, 4713-4730]. A hypothesis is proposed that these enzymes may exert helicase activity possibly required for local unwinding of DNA in the cleavage sites.

Mutations that confer de novo activity upon a maintenance methyltransferase

DNA methyltransferases are not only sequence specific in their action, but they also differentiate between the alternative methylation states of a target site. Some methyltransferases are equally active on either unmethylated or hemimethylated DNA and consequently function as de novo methyltransferases. Others are specific for hemimethylated target sequences, consistent with the postulated role of a maintenance methyltransferase in perpetuating a pattern of DNA modification. The molecular basis for the difference between de novo and maintenance methyltransferase activity is unknown, yet fundamental to cellular activities that are affected by different methylation states of the genome. The methyltransferase activity of the type I restriction and modification system, EcoK, is the only known prokaryotic methyltransferase shown to be specific for hemimethylated target sequences. We have isolated mutants of Escherichia coli K-12 which are able to modify unmethylated target sequences efficiently in a manner indicative of de novo methyltransferase activity. Consistent with this change in specificity, some mutations shift the balance between DNA restriction and modification as if both activities now compete at unmethylated targets. Two genes encode the methyltransferase and all the mutations are loosely clustered within one of them.

A novel activity in Escherichia coli K-12 that directs restriction of DNA modified at CG dinucleotides

The restriction systems McrA and McrB of Escherichia coli K-12 are known to attack DNA containing modified cytosine. In strains lacking both activities, however, we observed that DNA methylated at CG dinucleotides (as is mammalian DNA) was still significantly restricted. We show that this substantial barrier to the acceptance of 5-methylcytosine-containing DNA is attributable to a hitherto unknown activity of the Mrr restriction system. Strikingly, the multiple systems used by this gut inhabitant to determine the fate of invading DNA will all limit genetic exchange with its mammalian host(s), reinforcing the idea that one role of DNA methylation is to serve as a "molecular passport" (E. A. Raleigh, R. Trimarchi, and H. Revel, Genetics 122:279-296, 1989).

Organization of restriction-modification systems

The genes for over 100 restriction-modification systems have now been cloned, and approximately one-half have been sequenced. Despite their similar function, they are exceedingly heterogeneous. The heterogeneity is evident at three levels: in the gene arrangements; in the enzyme compositions; and in the protein sequences. This paper summarizes the main features of the R-M systems that have been cloned.

ERIC sequences: a novel family of repetitive elements in the genomes of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and other enterobacteria

We describe a family of highly conserved, Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus (ERIC) sequences, 14 of which have been identified in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium and a further three in other enterobacterial species (Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Vibrio cholerae). ERIC sequences are 126 bp long and appear to be restricted to transcribed regions of the genome, either in intergenic regions of polycistronic operons or in untranslated regions upstream or downstream of open reading frames. ERIC sequences are highly conserved at the nucleotide sequence level but their chromosomal locations differ between species. Several features of ERIC sequences resemble those of REP sequences (Stern et al., 1984) although the nucleotide sequence is entirely different. The question of whether ERICs have a specific function, or represent a form of 'selfish' DNA, is discussed.

Cloning an Escherichia coli gene encoding a protein remarkably similar to mammalian aldehyde dehydrogenases

The nucleotide (nt) sequence of 2.9 kb of Escherichia coli genomic DNA that encompasses a gene encoding a putative aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) has been determined. The presence of an open reading frame beginning 2 nt downstream from the ALDH-coding sequence indicates that this gene may be part of a larger operon. An extended upstream nt sequence displays striking similarity to sequences found upstream or in intergenic regions of a number of other bacterial genes. Crude cell extracts from E. coli grown under several different conditions show weak but measurable ALDH enzyme activity that prefers NADP+ over NAD+ as coenzyme; however, aldH gene expression appears to be very low, since no specific transcripts derived from the novel gene can be detected on Northern blots of RNA isolated from these cells. The deduced E. coli protein contains 495 amino acid (aa) residues with a calculated Mr of 53418. Its aa sequence showed marked similarity to NAD(+)-dependent ALDHs of eukaryotes. About 40% aa sequence identity, and over 60% similarity, are detected between the E. coli protein and both the cytosolic (class-1) and the mitochondrial (class-2) forms of mammalian ALDHs. In contrast to the mammalian enzymes, which contain eight to eleven Cys residues, only four Cys are present in the E. coli protein, and of these only Cys302, corresponding to the disulfiram-sensitive residue in the mammalian enzymes, is found at a conserved position in both the prokaryotic and the eukaryotic ALDHs. The availability of a bacterial ALDH with a high degree of similarity to mammalian ALDHs promises to facilitate future structural studies on these enzymes.

Genomic hsd-Mu(lac) operon fusion mutants of Escherichia coli K-12

Genomic (chromosomal)hsd-Mu(lac) operon fusions have been constructed in two strains of Escherichia coli K-12 for the three hsd genes, hsdRK, hsdMK and hsdSK, using MudX and lambda placMu53. Expression of hsdK mutants ranged from 16 to 74 units (u) (with a mean of 52 u) for fusions to promoter pres and ranged from 26-75 u (also with a mean of 52 u) for fusions to promoter pmod. The expression of the two hsdK promoters was measured in different stages of growth. The pres fusion mutant showed a lag in beta-galactosidase (beta Gal) production, as compared to the pmod fusion mutant. One r-Km-K mutant (JR205) showed more than ten times the beta Gal activity of other insertion mutants. The activity of this mutant decreased by 20-fold upon the transfer of F101-102, which includes the wild-type hsd region. Positive gene-dosage effect was observed using F' plasmids containing the hsd-lacZ region.

Molecular cloning and characterization of the gene encoding the adenine methyltransferase M.CviRI from Chlorella virus XZ-6E

The gene encoding the DNA methyltransferase M.CviRI from Chlorella virus XZ-6E was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. M.CviRI methylates adenine in TGCA sequences. DNA containing the M.CviRI gene was sequenced and a single open reading frame of 1137 bp was identified which could code for a polypeptide of 379 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight of 42,814. Comparison of the M.CviRI predicted amino acid sequence with another Chlorella virus and 14 bacterial adenine methyltransferases revealed extensive similarity to the other Chlorella virus enzyme.

A novel repeated DNA sequence located in the intergenic regions of bacterial chromosomes

We report the discovery of a novel group of highly conserved DNA sequences located within the intergenic regions of the chromosomes of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and other bacteria. These intergenic repeat units (IRUs) are 124-127 nucleotides long and have the potential to form stable stem-loop structures. The location of these sequences within the intergenic regions is variable with respect to known or putative signals for transcription and translation of the flanking genes. Some of the IRU sequences are transcribed, others are probably not. The structure and possible functions of these sequences are discussed in relation to palindromic units and other repeated DNA sequences in bacteria.

Genetic and sequence organization of the mcrBC locus of Escherichia coli K-12

The mcrB (rglB) locus of Escherichia coli K-12 mediates sequence-specific restriction of cytosine-modified DNA. Genetic and sequence analysis shows that the locus actually comprises two genes, mcrB and mcrC. We show here that in vivo, McrC modifies the specificity of McrB restriction by expanding the range of modified sequences restricted. That is, the sequences sensitive to McrB(+)-dependent restriction can be divided into two sets: some modified sequences containing 5-methylcytosine are restricted by McrB+ cells even when McrC-, but most such sequences are restricted in vivo only by McrB+ McrC+ cells. The sequences restricted only by McrB+C+ include T-even bacteriophage containing 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (restriction of this phage is the RglB+ phenotype), some sequences containing N4-methylcytosine, and some sequences containing 5-methylcytosine. The sequence codes for two polypeptides of 54 (McrB) and 42 (McrC) kilodaltons, whereas in vitro translation yields four products, of approximately 29 and approximately 49 (McrB) and of approximately 38 and approximately 40 (McrC) kilodaltons. The McrB polypeptide sequence contains a potential GTP-binding motif, so this protein presumably binds the nucleotide cofactor. The deduced McrC polypeptide is somewhat basic and may bind to DNA, consistent with its genetic activity as a modulator of the specificity of McrB. At the nucleotide sequence level, the G+C content of mcrBC is very low for E. coli, suggesting that the genes may have been acquired recently during the evolution of the species.