Psycho-physiological investigations of brief relaxation training

Effects of Temporary Respiration Exercise with Individual Harmonic Frequency on Blood Pressure and Autonomic Balance

This study investigated the effects of modulated respiration on blood pressure and autonomic balance to develop a healthcare application system for stabilizing autonomic balance. Thirty-two participants were asked to perform self-regulated tasks with 18 different respiration sequences, and their electrocardiograms (ECG) and blood pressure were measured. Changes in cardiovascular system functions and blood pressure were compared between free-breathing and various respiration conditions. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures stabilized after individual harmonic breathing. Autonomic balance, characterized by heart rate variability, was also stabilized with brief respiration training according to harmonic frequency. Five machine-learning algorithms were used to classify the two opposing factors between the free and modulated breathing conditions. The random forest models outperformed the other classifiers in the training data of systolic blood pressure and heart rate variability. The mean areas under the curves (AUCs) were 0.82 for systolic blood pressure and 0.98 for heart rate variability. Our findings lend support that blood pressure and autonomic balance were improved by temporary harmonic frequency respiration. This study provides a self-regulated respiration system that can control and help stabilize blood pressure and autonomic balance, which would help reduce mental stress and enhance human task performance in various fields.

Scrutinizing the Emotional Nature of Intuitive Coherence Judgments

Dual‐system models propose that cognitive processing can occur either intuitively or deliberately. Unlike deliberate decision strategies, intuitive ones are assumed to have an emotional component attached to the decision process. We tested if intuitive decisions are indeed accompanied by an emotional response while deliberate decisions are not. Specifically, we conducted a psychophysiological study in which participants were instructed to decide either intuitively or deliberately if three simultaneously presented words were semantically coherent or incoherent (triad task). The degree of emotionality of these two decision strategies (intuitive vs. deliberate) was compared using changes in electrodermal activity (EDA) and the reaction time (RT) effect of an affective priming paradigm as primary measurements. Based on a valence‐arousal model, our results revealed that intuitive and deliberate judgments do not differ as to their emotional valence but that they do differ in emotional arousal. Most notably, sympathetic activation during intuitive judgments was significantly lower compared to sympathetic activation during deliberate judgments. Our results reflect that a relaxed state of mind—manifested in low sympathetic activity—could underlie the holistic processing that is assumed to facilitate the proliferation of semantic associations during coherence judgments. This suggests that coherence judgments made under an (instructed) intuitive decision mode have a specific psychophysiological signature and that arousal is the differentiating component between intuitive and deliberate decision strategies. © 2016 The Authors Journal of Behavioral Decision Making Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Infants of depressed mothers

Literature is reviewed demonstrating the impact of maternal depression on early infant interactions and development. Infants of depressed mothers (a) develop a depressed mood style as early as 3 months; (b) this mood generalizes to interactions with nondepressed women; (c) it persists over the first year if the mother's depression persists; and (d) it affects growth and Bayley developmental scores by the end of the first year. Other data are reviewed on individual differences including maternal depression styles of withdrawal and intrusion, negative behavior matching, and distorted perceptions of behavior. Finally, genetic, intrauterine, and extrauterine environment effects are discussed and interventions are suggested for altering the mother's depressed behavior and distorted perceptions. The review concludes that a developmental psychopathology perspective is needed to better understand the development of early depression.

Muscle relaxation therapy for anxiety disorders: it works but how?

Muscle relaxation therapy (MRT) has continued to play an important role in the modern treatment of anxiety disorders. Abbreviations of the original progressive MRT protocol [Jacobson, E. (1938). Progressive relaxation (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press] have been found to be effective in panic disorder (PD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). This review describes the most common MRT techniques, summarizes recent evidence of their effectiveness in treating anxiety, and explains their rationale and physiological basis. We conclude that although GAD and PD patients may exhibit elevated muscle tension and abnormal autonomic and respiratory measures during laboratory baseline assessments, the available evidence does not allow us to conclude that physiological activation decreases over the course of MRT in GAD and PD patients, even when patients report becoming less anxious. Better-designed studies will be required to identify the mechanisms of MRT and to advance clinical practice.

Anxiety management for persistent generalised anxiety

A preliminary controlled investigation of the effectiveness of Anxiety Management as a treatment for generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) is described. Patients with a primary diagnosis of GAD, in which the current episode had lasted for at least 6 months but not more than 2 years, were included. Anxiety Management, a self-help treatment including procedures for managing somatic and cognitive symptoms, and for dealing with avoidance and low self-confidence, was given either immediately or after a 12-week waiting period. The average length of treatment was 8.7 sessions. Highly significant changes in anxiety, depression, and problem ratings were shown after treatment. These changes were replicated when the waiting list group had also received treatment, and gains were maintained by both groups for 6 months. Similar degrees of improvement and maintenance of change were shown in subgroups with and without minor depressive disorder or recurrent panic attacks.

Psychophysiological evidence for a state theory of hypnosis and susceptibility

Psychophysiological evidence is presented of altered cerebral organisation under hypnosis. Bilateral electrodermal activity was examined to tones presented simultaneously with the induction of hypnosis. Susceptibility was monitored throughout. Two control conditions were devised, one for division of attention and another for relaxation. In addition there was a familiarisation session which permitted groups to be equated for rates of habituation. Both faster and slower habituation were found under hypnosis but the direction of change related to susceptibility; Susceptible subjects showed a reduction in orienting responses and Unsusceptible subjects an increase in responses. Susceptible subjects also had lower tonic levels of activity and fewer nonspecific responses during the induction prior to the tones. Neither relaxation nor listening to a story altered habituation systematically. Under hypnosis there was a reversal in lateral asymmetries in orienting response amplitudes in Susceptible subjects suggesting a shift in hemispheric influences from left to right.

Treatment of substance abuse by relaxation training: a review of its rationale, efficacy and mechanisms

The efficacy of relaxation training as a treatment for alcohol and drug abuse is reviewed, and directions for future research derived. Such use of relaxation procedures, notably progressive muscular relaxation and meditation, has been widespread and is premised on the assumptions that substance abuse is causally linked to anxiety and that anxiety can be reduced by relaxation training. However, the evidence suggests that such precipitating anxiety is limited to interpersonal-stress situations involving diminished perceived personal control over the stressor, and that alcohol and other drugs are often consumed for their euphoric rather than tranquilizing effects. Consequently, the empirical support for the effectiveness of relaxation training as a treatment for substance abuse in general is equivocal. As well, the existing outcome studies suffer from numerous methodological and conceptual inadequacies. In cases of demonstrated effectiveness, increased perceived control is a more plausible explanation than is decreased anxiety.

Biofeedback treatment for headaches, Raynaud's disease, essential hypertension, and irritable bowel syndrome: a review of the long-term follow-up literature

Long-term follow-up evidence for biofeedback treatment of headaches, Raynaud's disease, essential hypertension, and the irritable bowel syndrome was reviewed. Acknowledging the difficulties with cross-study comparisons, the following general success rate were determined: primary idiopathic Raynaud's disease--70%, or better; vascular headache--70%, or better; mixed headache--about 60%; and muscle contraction headache--50%, or less. With relatively fewer patients, successful outcomes with the irritable bowel syndrome and secondary Raynaud's phenomenon were roughly 60% and 40%, respectively. Few cases of clinically significant long-term decreases in diastolic blood pressure were demonstrated; however, the need for medication was reduced or eliminated in some patients. There were indications that biofeedback combined with psychotherapy resulted in highest success rates. No differences were found in effectiveness between biofeedback, other relaxation techniques, and biofeedback in combination with relaxation techniques--all had essentially comparable rates of success. No correlations between physiological and psychological measures of condition at follow-up were reported. Implications and interpretations of these findings are discussed.

Electromyographic biofeedback for tension control during fine motor skill acquisition

The presence of residual muscular tension has been implicated as a deterimental influence on the performance and learning of motor skills. A method for reducing muscular tension has been provided by the the advent of biofeedback training. This study investigated the effects of tension-control training by electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback on learning and performance of the pursuit-rotor backing task. Thirty young adult males were pretested for pursuit-rotor (PR) tracking skill, ranked by performance scores, and divided into identical triplicates to form two experimental groups and a control group. After a total of 3 hours of EMG biofeedback training for the experimental groups, all subjects were reevaluated on the PR test. One experimental group received biofeedback during the posttests. Analysis of variance of pretest-posttest difference means and t tests of scores representing performance and tension indicated that the EMG biofeedback training (1) significantly reduced tension induced by the novel motor skill and (2) significantly improved performance of the motor skill. Transfer of tension-control training was shown to facilitate learning and performance more than direct EMG biofeedback during performance. Residual tension reduction during learning was particularly facilitated by EMG biofeedback training, a profound implication for the management of stress in a variety of situations.

Electrodermal reactions to opposite types of autogenic training imagery

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of autogenic and "opposite autogenic" verbal formulae upon electrodermal activity. In a between-subjects design, 15 unpracticed volunteers listened to and followed tape recorded imagery suggestions for relaxation and quietude, heaviness and warmth in the extremities, warmth in the central area of the body, coolness of the forehead, and calmness and regularity of breathing and circulation; 15 additional volunteers were exposed to opposite suggestions. Frequency of spontaneous GSRs, cumulative peak amplitude of spontaneous GSRs, and basal skin resistance levels were measured during 2 min epochs before and after the suggestions. Directionally appropriate changes occurred in all three electrodermal measures; these changes were significant for the two GSR measures and approached significance for the BSR measure. The autogenic suggestions produced greater and more reliable visceral effects than did the "opposite autogenic" suggestions.

Relaxation and skin conductance feedback in the control of reactions to cognitive tasks

Peripheral physiological activity and verbal ratings of tension and nervousness were assessed during instructed relaxation, and relaxation assisted by feedback of skin conductance level (SCL). Sixteen volunteers attempted to use each strategy in turn in a cross-over design. Responses were monitored both during quiet relaxation, and throughout the performance of taxing cognitive tasks. Th electrodermal feedback made no difference to the reductions in SCL, heart rate or subjective ratings, when relaxation was carried out in undisturbed conditions. Following training, reactions to cognitive tasks were attenuated. It is suggested that while SCL feedback may aid the management of reactivity, it has little impact in the short term on depth of relaxation achieved by instructional programmes.

Electromyographic biofeedback for tension control during gross motor skill acquisition

This study investigated the effects of tension-control training by electromyographic biofeedback on learning and performance of a stabliometer balancing task. 30 young adult males were pretested for stabilometer balancing skill, ranked by performance scores, and divided into identical triplicates to form two experimental groups and a control group. All subjects were reevaluated on the stabilometer test following feedback training of the experimental subjects. Analysis of variance of difference means, scores representing performance and tension, indicated that the biofeedback training significantly reduced tension induced by the novel motor skill and significantly improved performance of the motor skill.

The relative effectiveness of three techniques to induce the trophotropic response

The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effectiveness of electromyographic biofeedback training (EMG BFT), meditation, and progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) in eliciting a relaxation or trophotropic response as measured by frontalis muscle tension, heart rate, electrodermal response, respiration rate, and skin temperature. Fifty-four college students were randomly assigned to one of five groups: (1) control, (2) placebo control, (3) EMG BFT, (4) meditation, (5) PMR. After baseline measures were obtained subjects were trained in 10 30-minute training sessions and posttested. Comparisons by ANOVAs indicated there was a significant decrease in muscle tension in the EMG BFT and meditation groups and significant decreases in respiration rate in the meditation and PMR groups. No other changes were attributed to treatment.

Relaxation

The relaxed state, to me, is simply the state of being mentally and physically at ease. This does not necessarily mean a passive state, in a quiet place, day-dreaming. It could mean an active state where the individual is working or playing in the day-to-day environment. To achieve this relaxed state the aim is to regulate the amount of stress so it does not exceed a determined level. Above this level, stress becomes counterproductive. We aim for the level of stress that is optimal for each individual at a particular time, performing a particular task. At this level the individual may be active or passive and still be relaxed.

Biofeedback, self-control, and self-management

A common goal of biofeedback is self-control of physiologic responses. The conceptions and paradigms of the literature on self-control of motoric and cognitive responses were surveyed to provide a basis for the self-control of physiologic responses. An operational definition of self-control was advanced, and self-control was placed in the framework of a general self-management strategy which included discrimination and maintenance components.

Control of cardiac response under aversive stimulation. Superiority of a heart-rate feedback condition

The relative heart rate effects of biofeedback training, deep muscle relaxation, and a no-feedback/music procedure were compared during two criterion situations. The first consisted of a 25-min training period during which subjects received the assigned treatments. The second consisted of the pre- to posttraining reductions in heart rate reactivity to a series of aversive tone-shock trials. On the first criterion, the heart rate decreases of the feedback and no-feedback/music groups were not clearly distinguishable; however, both groups fell significantly below the muscle-relaxation group. By contrast, on the second criterion, the three groups were clearly distinguishable, with feedback subjects evidencing the most heart rate "control", followed by the muscle-relaxation and no-feedback/music groups, respectively. On the segment of the posttraining aversive trials conducted in the absence of the feedback signal, transfer of heart rate control was incomplete for feedback subjects, but still remained below the level of the other two groups. Training effects were more pronounced on tonic than on phasic heart rate changes. The difference between the two criterion situations suggests the possible need for and feasibility of employing a situational arousal methodology in evaluating the extent and limitation of physiological training procedures.

Specificity of finger pulse volume feedback during relaxation

The effect of biofeedback during brief periods of relaxation was examined. Two groups (10 subjects in each group) were asked to relax as completely as possible during a series of six 3-minute relaxation periods in each of two 1-hr sessions. One group received biofeedback based on finger pulse volume (FPV) during the relaxation trials, while the other group received no biofeedback. Measures of heart rate, respiration rate, skin conductance level, and FPV were recorded during the sessions, and subjective ratings concerning relaxation were obtained after each session. The results showed that FPV scores for the groups differed during the relaxation trials of the second session, but other measures failed to distinguish between the groups. The group that received FPV feedback revealed a significantly higher level of FPV (relative to baseline) than the group that received no feedback.

Controlled evaluation of intravenous drugs in the specific desensitization of phobias

The present study was undertaken to compare intravenous methohexitone, given as an adjunct to the behaviour therapy of phobias, with another centrally-acting, rapidly metabolised intravenous agent, propanidid, and also with normal saline. Thirty-five patients were included in the trial, all of whom had had phobic symptoms of at least one year's duration which were seriously interfering with their lives — 15 had specific phobias, 9 had social phobias and 11 had agoraphobia. Treatment consisted of twelve weekly drug-assisted desensitization treatments, using either 1 per cent methohexitone, 2.5 per cent propanidid or normal saline. Within each diagnostic group the drugs were randomly allocated. All treatments were conducted by one of the authors and all assessments by the other (who did not know which of the three preparations the patient had received). In addition to monthly ratings of the phobic symptoms, assessments of anxiety and depression were made, using self-rating scales. Patients were followed up six months after the end of treatment.

Patients with specific phobias fared best, 9 out of the 13 who completed being considered to be markedly improved. Although the numbers are small there was a suggestion that patients receiving the two active drugs did better than those on the placebo. While methohexitone and propanidid were similarly effective, recovery time was much more rapid with propanidid. No patient in the specific phobia group relapsed significantly during the six months follow-up period. Furthermore, as the phobia improved the general anxiety level fell. Few depressive symptoms arose during successful desensitization, and there was no evidence of symptom substitution.

Patients with social phobias and agoraphobia did far less well. In neither case did the active drugs appear to possess any advantage over placebo. Furthermore, of the 7 patients with agoraphobia who had improved, 4 relapsed within six months.

It was concluded that drug-assisted desensitization is likely to be of greatest benefit in the management of specific phobias, with propanidid being the drug of choice.

Active muscular relaxation in desensitization of phobic patients

Eight phobic outpatients were treated by six sessions of desensitization followed by exposure or vice versa. Treatment was by visualization of phobic images up a hierarchy for 20 minutes at a time. During desensitization patients were relaxed before and after each image, while during exposure they looked at a neutral slide instead. Skin conductance activity was significantly lower during relaxation than during observation of the neutral slide. The patients, therapist, and a ‘blind’ assessor rated the main phobia as significantly improved for both treatments together. Each of the two treatments contributed similarly to improvement during and after treatment sessions, on measures of main phobia, subjective anxiety, and heart rate. Relaxation training appears to be redundant to the desensitization procedure.