The effect of 3-aminobenzamide on the frequency of X-ray- or neutron-induced chromosome aberrations in cycling or non-cycling human lymphocytes

Effect of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation inhibitors on the genotoxic effects of the boron neutron capture reaction

The boron neutron capture (BNC) reaction results from the interaction of 10B with low-energy thermal neutrons and gives rise to highly damaging lithium and alpha-particles. In this work the genotoxicity caused by the BNC reaction in V79 Chinese hamster cells was evaluated in the presence of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation inhibitors. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), the most important member of the PARP enzyme family, is considered to be a constitutive factor of the DNA damage surveillance network present in eukaryotic cells, acting through a DNA break sensor function. Inhibition of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation was achieved with the classical compound 3-aminobenzamide (3-AB), and with two novel and very potent inhibitors, 5-aminoisoquinolinone (5-AIQ) and PJ-34. Dose-response increases in the frequencies of aberrant cells excluding gaps (%ACEG) and chromosomal aberrations excluding gaps per cell (CAEG/cell) were observed for increasing exposures to the BNC reaction. The presence of 3-AB did not increase the %ACEG or CAEG/cell, nor did it change the pattern of the induced chromosomal aberrations. Results with 5-AIQ and PJ-34 were in agreement with the results obtained with 3-AB. We further studied the combined effect of a PARP inhibitor and a DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) inhibitors (3-AB and wortmannin, respectively) on the genotoxicity of the BNC reaction, by use of the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay. DNA-PK is also activated by DNA breaks and binds DNA ends, playing a role of utmost importance in the repair of double-strand breaks. Our results show that the inhibition of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation does not particularly modify the genotoxicity of the BNC reaction, and that PARP inhibition together with a concomitant inhibition of DNA-PK revealed barely the same sensitizing effect as DNA-PK inhibition per se.

PARP-1, PARP-2, and the cellular response to low doses of ionizing radiation

PURPOSE

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is rapidly and directly activated by single-strand breaks and is required for efficient base excision repair. These properties indicate that inhibition of PARP-1 might enhance the cellular response to low doses of radiation. We tested the effect of chemical inhibition of PARP-1 on low-dose clonogenic survival in a number of cell lines and the low-dose radiation response of a PARP-1 knockout murine cell line.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Clonogenic cell survival of V79-379A and CHO-K1 hamster fibroblasts, T98G and U373-MG human glioma cells, and 3T3 mouse embryo fibroblast PARP-1 knockout cells was measured using a precise flow cytometry-based plating assay. Chemical inhibitors of PARP enzymes were tested for their effect on clonogenic survival after a range of ionizing radiation doses.

RESULTS

Chemical inhibition of PARP activity induced marked radiosensitization of V79, CHO, and exponentially growing T98G cells in the 0.05-0.3-Gy range. This effect was not seen in U373 cells or in confluent T98G populations. Low-dose radiosensitization was not apparent in PARP-1 knockout cells.

CONCLUSION

Low-dose radiosensitization of actively dividing tumor cells by PARP-1 inhibitors suggests that they may have a role in enhancing the efficacy of ultrafractionated or low-dose-rate radiotherapy regimens. We hypothesize that PARP-2 compensates for the absence of PARP-1 in the knockout cell line.

Adaptive response to ionizing radiation induced by low doses of gamma rays in human cell lines

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate whether the adaptive response could be induced in human lymphoblastoid cell lines and human tumor cell lines. The time necessary for the expression of the adaptive response was also investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three lymphoblastoid cell lines from ataxia telangiectasia (AT) homozygote (GM 1526), AT heterozygote (GM 3382), and normal individual (3402p) and two hepatoma cell lines, Hep G2 and Hep 3B, were used in this study. Experiments were carried out by delivering 0.01 Gy followed by 0.5 Gy of gamma radiation to the exponentially growing cells. The time necessary for the expression of the adaptive response was determined by varying the time interval between the two doses from 1 to 72 h. In some experiments, 3-aminobenzamide, a potent inhibitor of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, was added immediately after the 0.5 Gy exposure. The cultures were fixed 30 min (for the G2 chromatid) and 6 h (for the S chromatid) after the 0.5 Gy exposure. Metaphase chromosome assay was carried out to score chromatid breaks as an end point.

RESULTS

A prior exposure to 0.01 Gy of gamma rays significantly reduced the number of chromatid breaks induced by subsequent higher doses (0.5 Gy) in all the tested cell lines. The magnitude of the adaptive response was similar among the cell lines despite their different radiosensitivities. In the G2 chromatids, the adaptive response was observed both at short-time intervals, as early as 1 h, and at long-time intervals. In the S chromatids, however, the adaptive response was shown only at long-time intervals. When 3-aminobenzamide was added after the 0.5 Gy, the adaptive responses were abolished in all the experimental groups.

CONCLUSION

The adaptive response was observed in human lymphoblastoid cell lines and hepatoma cell lines. The magnitude of the adaptive response did not seem to be related to the radiosensitivity of the cells. The elimination of the adaptive response with 3-aminobenzamide is consistent with the proposal that this adaptive response is the result of the induction of a certain chromosomal repair mechanisms.

Micronuclei and 3AB index in X-irradiated human lymphocytes in G0 and G1 phases

We applied the cytokines-block micronucleus assay to observe the radiobiological response of human lymphocytes after X-ray treatment in the G0 and G1 phases. In addition, we used 3-aminobenzamide (3AB) to measure the 3AB index in the two phases. The experimental results show that at 2 Gy the MN yield and the 3AB index are dependent on the cell phase and show considerable inter-individual variability. The radiation-induced MN frequency obtained for 33 subjects is 0.470 +/- 0.063 for the G0 phase and 0.689 +/- 0.139 for the G1 phase; the 3AB index values are 0.326 +/- 0.144 and 0.067 +/- 0.058 for G0 and G1 phases, respectively. At the individual level, the 3AB index for the G1 phase correlates inversely with the cytogenetic effects observed in that phase. We discuss the possibility of applying the MN test combined with the 3AB index to lymphocytes at different phases to study the individual response to radiation (individual radiosensitivity).

Chromosome-type exchange aberrations are induced by inhibiting repair of UVC-induced DNA lesions in quiescent human lymphocytes

Human lymphocytes in the quiescent stage were UVC-irradiated and then incubated for 90 min in the presence of the DNA-repair inhibitor ara-C. The cells were then cultured and analyzed for chromosome aberrations. A single treatment with UVC or ara-C gives rise to a very low yield of dicentrics, whereas the combined treatment can induce a high frequency of these chromosome-type aberrations. The yield in the combined treatment is approximately proportional to the square of the UVC fluence in the range 1-3 J/m2. In addition, the experiments demonstrate that synergistic effects arise when cells are treated with UVC + ara-C and then exposed to X-rays. The results can be explained on the assumption that the UVC + ara-C treatment induces DNA double-strand breaks which, to the first approximation, are randomly distributed over the chromosomes. These breaks are able to interact with each other as well as with X-ray-induced DNA double-strand breaks to form a chromosome-type exchange aberration.

Dose-effect relationship for X-ray-induced reciprocal translocations in mouse spermatogonia following pretreatment with 3-aminobenzamide

The influence of 3-aminobenzamide (3-AB) pretreatment on the dose-response relationship for radiation-induced reciprocal translocations in mouse spermatogonial stem cells was studied. The results show that at doses of 3-10 Gy of X-rays the frequencies of translocations were higher in 3-AB-pretreated animals as compared to animals that received X-rays only. The 3-AB pretreatment was not effective at dose levels of 1 and 2 Gy. The shape of the dose-effect curve was similar to that obtained without 3-AB pretreatment, i.e., a humped curve, but the initial slope was clearly steeper and the position of the peak was shifted from 7 to 9 Gy. The effects observed can be explained by a 3-AB-mediated sensitization of normally radioresistant stem cells that are at the stage of stimulation to enter the mitotic cycle, thus increasing the population of radiosensitive spermatogonial stem cells.

Poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism in proliferating versus quiescent cells and its relationship to their radiation responses

In the murine tumour cell lines 66 and 67 growing in vitro, quiescent (Q; unfed plateau-phase) cells are more sensitive to X-ray-induced cell killing than are proliferating (P) cells, while St4 cells (Q cells that have been re-fed and returned to 37 degrees C for 4h) are similar to P cells in radiosensitivity. We have been investigating parameters of poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism in order to determine whether such factors contribute to the variations in radiosensitivity of these growth states. These parameters were cellular NAD content, the activity of poly(ADP-ribose) transferase (ADPRT) in permeabilized cells and the activity of poly(ADP-ribose)-degrading enzymes. The results suggest that in line 66, but not 67, a reduced ability to regenerate NAD following irradiation was associated with the reduced survival of Q cells. However, neither the baseline activity of ADPRT nor the degree of stimulation of ADPRT by X-rays was found to correlate with survival, or with the induction and repair of DNA strand breaks. Stimulation of ADPRT by X-rays was dependent on dose and was greatest for a 2-min incubation with 3H-NAD. For a 2-min incubation the stimulation of ADPRT following a dose of 50 Gy was 7- and 10-fold in 66 and 67 P cells, respectively, versus 3-4-fold in Q cells. Detectable stimulation was observed in 66 P and Q cells for doses as low as 5 Gy. P and Q cells did not differ in the rate of degradation of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymers.

Health effects of ionizing radiation

Although humans have evolved in an environment of ionizing radiation, it was not until man-made sources were developed that the effects of ionizing radiation started to become known. Detection and measurement of radiation is not only sophisticated but widely applied. This article deals with exposure to this kind of radiation and the risk it may cause.

Relationship between cell cycle stage in the fertilized egg of mice and repair capacity for X-ray-induced damage in the sperm

The potentiation effects of 3-aminobenzamide, caffeine, hydroxyurea and arabinofuranosyl cytosine on the yield of X-ray-induced chromosome aberrations of mouse sperm were examined at the first-cleavage metaphase, to clarify a correlation between chromosome aberrations and cell cycle dependency of repair capacity of the fertilized egg. The result provided evidence that there are two major types of DNA damage in X-irradiated sperm: (1) short-lived DNA lesions; the lesions are subject to repair inhibition by agents added in G1 and are converted into chromosome-type aberrations during G1, and (2) long-lived DNA lesions; the lesions persist until S phase and repair of the lesions is inhibited by caffeine, hydroxyurea and arabinofuranosyl cytosine in G2.

The effect of 3-aminobenzamide on X-ray induction of chromosome aberrations in Down syndrome lymphocytes

Human lymphocytes from normal and Down syndrome (DS) subjects were examined to determine the effect of 3-aminobenzamide (3AB) on X-ray-induced chromosome aberrations. Lymphocytes were treated with 150 or 300 rad of X-rays in the presence of 3 mM 3AB for various times after irradiation, and then the cells were analyzed for the presence of chromosome aberrations in mitotic cells. 3-Aminobenzamide had no effect on the frequency of chromosome aberrations produced by X-rays in G0 lymphocytes from normal subjects. In contrast, lymphocytes from DS patients displayed an increase in the frequency of chromosome aberrations as a result of treatment with X-rays in the presence of 3AB. These observations indicate that DS lymphocytes are more sensitive to the inhibition of poly(ADP)ribose synthetase than normal lymphocytes.

Differential effect of benzamide on NAD+ content and the frequency of chromatid aberrations in X-irradiated L5178Y-R and L5178Y-S cells

The effect of treatment with benzamide, an inhibitor of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ribosyl polymerase (ADPRP) was studied in cells of two strains of L5178Y (LY) murine lymphoma exposed to ionizing radiation. Continuous 2 mmol/l benzamide (Bz) treatment increased the frequency of chromatid aberrations in the radiation sensitive LY-S strain, but not in the resistant LY-R strain. This result is in agreement with the previously found, enhanced by Bz, killing effect of roentgen irradiation in LY-S cells. Also, the decrease in the cellular NAD+ content in these cells after irradiation was more pronounced than in LY-R cells; this may indicate an increased ADPRP activity upon infliction of DNA damage, or a difference in poly(ADP-ribose) turnover.

Nicotinamide deficiency in human lymphocytes prevents the [3H]thymidine-induced adaptive response for the repair of X-ray-induced chromosomal damage

Human lymphocytes treated with [3H]thymidine ([3H]dThd) become refractory to the induction of chromosomal aberrations by subsequent doses of X rays. This adaptive response to [3H]dThd does not occur in the presence of 3-aminobenzamide (3AB). 3AB inhibits the synthesis of poly(ADP-ribose) by the enzyme adenosine diphosphate ribosyl transferase (ADPRT), which requires NAD as a substrate. 3AB also prevents chromosomal repair, as measured in X-ray dose-fractionation studies. Because 3AB might interfere with metabolic reactions other than those mediated by ADPRT, experiments were carried out to see if the adaptive response was also inhibited in nicotinamide-free medium, which prevents poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by depleting cellular NAD. The experiments show that the incorporation of [3H]dThd has no effect on the induction of chromosomal aberrations by subsequent doses of X rays if the cells are cultured in nicotinamide-free medium. Nicotinamide deficiency mimics the effects of 3AB on both the adaptive response and chromosome repair. The results indicate that ADPRT activity itself, and not other metabolic processes affected by inhibitors of this enzyme, plays an essential role in the adaptive response.

The development of ideas about the effect of DNA repair on the induction of gene mutations and chromosomal aberrations by radiation and by chemicals

An historical overview is given of the development of ideas about chromosomal and DNA repair as they relate to the induction of mutations, chromosomal aberrations, and sister-chromatid exchanges by radiations and chemicals. The genetic and molecular bases of the various repair pathways are reviewed whenever possible. Work on both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is included. Mention is made, when deemed appropriate, of major developments in other areas that served as essential background for the repair work, but no attempt is made to cover these background developments in any detail. Near the end, a brief review is given of factors affecting polymerase fidelity. The history is subdivided into approximately 10-year intervals. For the most part, references are to reviews and symposia in which the ideas of the time were brought together. The implications of these findings for some practical problems in genetic toxicology and for our understanding of the maintenance of the genome are discussed at the end.

Cell cycle-dependent potentiation of X-ray-induced chromosomal aberrations by 3-aminobenzamide

The poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide had dramatically different effects on X-ray-induced cytogenetic damage in human lymphocytes depending on the stage of the cell cycle in which cells were irradiated. 3-Aminobenzamide (0.08-3.00 mM) potentiated the frequency of chromosomal aberrations when lymphocytes were irradiated in G1, S, or late G2. No effect was observed, however, when lymphocytes were irradiated in G0 or at the S/G2 boundary 6 h before termination of culture. These results indicate that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase may be involved in chromosomal repair of radiation damage only during specific stages of the cell cycle.

Posttreatment with sodium arsenite is coclastogenic in log phase but not in stationary phase

Posttreatment with sodium arsenite in log phase synergistically increases the chromosomal aberrations induced by ethyl methanesulfonate in Chinese hamster ovary cells, human fibroblasts, and human lymphocytes. However, posttreatment with sodium arsenite in stationary phase has no apparent effect on the clastogenicity of ethyl methanesulfonate. These results indicate that the cycling state of the cell plays a crucial role in the action of arsenite coclastogenicity. One prediction from this finding is that in combined treatment, posttreatment with sodium arsenite should preferentially kill cancer cells.

Inhibition of ADP-ribosylation increases X-ray-induced chromosomal damage in mouse testis and bone-marrow cells in vivo

The effect of 3-aminobenzamide (3AB) treatment on chromosomal radiosensitivity of mouse spermatogonial stem cells and bone-marrow cells was studied using various doses of X-rays. The results show that 3AB increases the induction of reciprocal translocations in slowly cycling spermatogonia as well as the frequency of chromosomal aberrations in actively dividing bone-marrow cells. The experiments indicate that both types of tissue are suitable to study the ability of inhibitors of ADP-ribosylation to modulate chromosome-breaking damage induced by ionizing radiation in vivo.

3-Aminobenzamide does not affect X-ray-induced cytogenetic damage in G0 human lymphocytes

The inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase by 3-aminobenzamide (3AB) has been reported to have very different effects on X-ray-induced chromosome aberrations in G0 human lymphocytes. One group of investigators observed a 2-3-fold increase in the yield of rings, dicentrics and chromosome breaks after X-irradiation and 3AB treatment, whereas another group found that 3AB had no effect on X-ray-induced chromosome aberrations. To resolve this discrepancy, we repeated the experiments as described by both groups and found no effect of 3 mM or 5 mM 3AB on the frequency of chromosome aberrations induced by either 1 Gy or 2 Gy of X-rays. Furthermore, we found no effect of 3AB on X-ray-induced aberration yields in C-banded prematurely condensed chromosome preparations from unstimulated human lymphocytes. These results indicate that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase is not involved in the repair of cytogenetic damage in G0 human lymphocytes.

Delayed repair of DNA single-strand breaks does not increase cytogenetic damage

DNA damage and cytogenetic effects of ionizing radiation were investigated in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and unstimulated human peripheral blood lymphocytes. DNA damage and repair were analysed by alkaline elution under conditions that predominantly measured DNA single-strand breaks (ssb). X-radiation (2.5 Gy) induced ssb in both CHO cells and unstimulated lymphocytes, and the breaks were repaired within 30 and 90 min, respectively. This rapid repair was delayed by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor, 3-aminobenzamide (3AB). The cytogenetic effects of the 3AB-induced delay in DNA repair were examined by analysing sister chromatid exchange (SCE) frequency in CHO cells and fragmentation of prematurely condensed chromosomes (PCC) in unstimulated human lymphocytes after 2.5 Gy of X-rays. Although 3AB delayed the rejoining of DNA ssb, this delay did not result in increased cytogenetic damage manifested as either SCE or fragmentation of PCC. These results indicate that the rapidly rejoining DNA ssb are not important in the production of chromosome damage.