Promutagen activation by Vicia faba: an assay based on the induction of sister-chromatid exchanges in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Genotoxic effects of the carbamate insecticide Pirimor-50® in Vicia faba root tip meristems and human lymphocyte culture after direct application and treatment with its metabolic extracts

The aim of the study was to evaluate genotoxic effects of Pirimor-50®, a pirimicarb-based formulation (50 % active ingredient), in human lymphocyte cultures and Vicia faba root meristems. Furthermore, the objective was to examine a combined influence of insecticide treatment with mammalian microsomal S9 and vegetal S10 metabolic fractions or S10 mix metabolic transformation extracts (after Vicia faba primary roots treatment with Pirimor-50®). We used sister chromatid exchange assay-SCE and measured cell cycle progression and proliferation (proportion of M1-M3 metaphases and replication index ratio-RI). Two processes were used for plant promutagen activation: in vivo activation-Pirimor-50® was applied for 4 h to the plant and then S10 mix was added to lymphocytes; and, in vitro activation-lymphocytes were treated with Pirimor-50® and S10 or S9 for 2 h. Direct treatment induced significantly higher SCE frequencies in meristems at 0.01 mg mL-1. In lymphocytes, significantly higher SCE was at 1 mg mL-1 with decrease in RI and M1-M3 metaphase proportions at 0.5 mg mL-1 and cell division stop at 2.5 mg mL1. S10 mix lymphocyte treatment showed significantly elevated SCE values at 2-2.5 mg mL-1, with cell death at 3 mg mL-1. Lymphocyte treatment with Pirimor-50® together with S9 or S10 showed slightly elevated SCE frequency but had a significant influence on RI decrease, with lowest values in S9 treatment. Since no data are available on the genotoxicity of Pirimor-50®, this study is one of the first to evaluate and compare its direct effect in two bioassays, animal and vegetal, and also the effect of plant and animal metabolism on its genotoxic potential.

Assessment of genotoxicity of Lannate-90® and its plant and animal metabolites in human lymphocyte cultures

This study evaluated direct and metabolic genotoxic effects caused by Lannate-90®, a methomyl-based formulation (90 % active ingredient), in human lymphocyte cultures using sister chromatid exchange assay (SCE). Two processes were used for the plant promutagens evaluation: in vivo activation, applying the insecticide systemically in plants for 4 h and subsequently adding plant metabolites containing extracts to lymphocyte cultures; and in vitro activation, where the insecticide was incubated with Vicia faba S10 mix plus human lymphocyte culture. Direct treatment with the insecticide significantly increased SCE frequency in human lymphocytes (250-750 mgL-1), with cellular death observed at 1000 mgL-1 concentration. Using the extracts of Vicia faba treated with Lannate-90® to treat human lymphocytes, a dose-response relationship was observed. In lymphocyte cultures treated directly with the insecticide for 2 h, a negative response was obtained. When S10 mix was added, SCE frequency did not change significantly. Meanwhile, a mixture of S9 mammalian metabolic mix and Lannate-90® increased the SCE frequency, with an observed concentration-dependent response. Although Lannate-90® induced cellular death at the highest concentrations, it did not cause a delay in cell proliferation in any of the treatments, confirming its genotoxic action. This study is one of the first to evaluate and compare the direct effect of Lannate-90® in two bioassays, animal and vegetal, and the effect of plant and animal metabolism on its genotoxic potential.

Acute toxic and genotoxic activities of widely used cytostatic drugs in higher plants: Possible impact on the environment

Cytostatic drugs are highly toxic pharmaceuticals and it was repeatedly postulated that they may cause adverse effects in ecosystems. The acute toxic and genotoxic properties of these drugs have not been adequately investigated in higher plants so far; therefore, we studied the most widely used drugs (5-flurouracil, 5FU; etoposide, Et; cisplatin, CisPt; carboplatin, CaPt; vincristine sulfate, VinS and cyclophosphamide monohydrate, CP) in micronucleus (MN) assays with meiotic pollen tetrad cells of Tradescantia and with root cells from Allium cepa. MNi are formed as a consequence of chromosome breaks and aneuploidy. We monitored also the acute toxic properties of the drugs, i.e. inhibition of cell division (mitotic indices and retardation of root growth) in the latter species. All compounds caused in both indicator plants genotoxic effects. The order of genotoxic potencies expressed as NOELs in µM was CisPt (0.1)≥ Et (0.5)>CP (1.0)>CaPt (10)>5FU (30)>VinS (100) in Tradescantia. A similar order was seen in Allium MN but Et was less active (5.0µM). Four compounds caused alterations of the mitotic indices under the present conditions namely CisPt (0.5), Et (10.0), 5FU (10.0) and VinS (100). Inhibition of root growth decreased in the order CisPt (0.5)>Et (1.0)≥VinS (1.0)>5FU (5.0)>CaPt (33.0)>CP (>1000). Comparisons of the NOELs with the predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) show that the latter values are at least 5 orders of magnitude lower and indicate that it is unlikely that their release in the environment may cause adverse effects in higher plants. However, it is notable that the levels of both platinum compounds and of 5FU in hospital effluents may reach levels which may induce damage of the genetic material.

Genotoxic Activities of Aniline and its Metabolites and Their Relationship to the Carcinogenicity of Aniline in the Spleen of Rats

Aniline (in the form of its hydrochloride) has been shown to induce a rather rare spectrum of tumors in the spleen of Fischer 344 rats. The dose levels necessary for this carcinogenic activity were in a range where also massive effects on the blood and non-neoplastic splenotoxicity as a consequence of methemoglobinemia were to be observed. This review aimed at clarifying if aniline itself or one of its metabolites has a genotoxic potential which would explain the occurrence of the spleen tumors in rats as a result of a primary genetic activity. The database for aniline and its metabolites is extremely heterogeneous. With validated assays it ranges from a few limited Ames tests (o- and m-hydroxyacetanilide, phenylhydroxylamine, nitrosobenzene) to a broad range of studies covering all genetic endpoints partly with several studies of the same or different test systems (aniline, p-aminophenol, p-hydroxyacetanilide). This makes a direct comparison rather difficult. In addition, a varying number of results with as yet not validated systems are available for aniline and its metabolites. Most results, especially those with validated and well performed/documented studies, did not indicate a potential of aniline to induce gene mutations. In five different mouse lymphoma tests, where colony sizing was performed only in one test, aniline was positive. If this indicates a peculiar feature of a point mutagenic potential or does represent a part of the clastogenic activity for which there is evidence in vitro as well as in vivo remains to be investigated. There is little evidence for a DNA damaging potential of aniline. The clastogenic activity in vivo is confined to dose levels, which are close to lethality essentially due to hematotoxic effects. The quantitatively most important metabolites for experimental animals as well as for humans (p-aminophenol, p-hydroxyacetanilide) seem to have a potential for inducing chromosomal damage in vitro and, at relatively high dose levels, also in vivo. This could be the explanation for the clastogenic effects that have been observed after high doses/concentrations with aniline. They do not induce gene mutations and there is little evidence for a DNA damaging potential. None of these metabolites revealed a splenotoxic potential comparable to that of aniline in studies with repeated or long-term administration to rats. The genotoxicity database on those metabolites with a demonstrated and marked splenotoxic potential, i.e. phenylhydroxylamine, nitrosobenzene, is unfortunately very limited and does not allow to exclude with certainty primary genotoxic events in the development of spleen tumors. But quite a number of considerations by analogy from other investigations support the conclusion that the effects in the spleen do not develop on a primary genotoxic basis. The weight of evidences suggests that the carcinogenic effects in the spleen of rats are the endstage of a chronic high-dose damage of the blood leading to a massive overload of the spleen with iron, which causes chronic oxidative stress. This conclusion, based essentially on pathomorphological observations, and analogy considerations thereof by previous authors, is herewith reconfirmed under consideration of the more recently reported studies on the genotoxicity of aniline and its metabolites, on biochemical measurements indicating oxidative stress, and on the metabolism of aniline. It is concluded that there is no relationship between the damage to the chromosomes at high, toxic doses of aniline and its major metabolites p-aminophenol/p-hydroxyacetanilide and the aniline-induced spleen tumors in the rat.

Metabolic activation of herbicide products by Vicia faba detected in human peripheral lymphocytes using alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis

Ametryn and metribuzin S-triazines derivatives and EPTC thiocarbamate are herbicides used extensively in Mexican agriculture, for example in crops such as corn, sugar cane, tomato, wheat, and beans. The present study evaluated the DNA damage and cytotoxic effects of three herbicides after metabolism by Vicia faba roots in human peripheral lymphocytes using akaline single cell gel electrophoresis. Three parameters were scored as indicators of DNA damage: tail length, percentage of cells with DNA damage (with comet), and level DNA damage. The lymphocytes were treated for 2 h with 0.5-5.0 microg/ml ametryn or metribuzin and 1.5-10 microg/ml EPTC. Lymphocytes also were coincubated for 2 h with 20 microl V. faba roots extracts that had been treated for 4 h with 50-500 mg/l of the two triazines or with the thiocarbamate herbicide or with ethanol (3600 mg/l), as positive control. The lymphocytes treated with three pesticides without in vivo metabolic activation by V. faba root did not show significant differences in the mean values between genotoxic parameters compared with negative control. But when human cells were exposed to three herbicides after they had been metabolized the frequency of cell comet, tail length and level DNA damage all increased. At highest concentrations of the three herbicides produced severe DNA damage compared with S10 fraction and negative control. The linear regression analysis of the tail length values of three herbicides indicated that there was genotoxic effect concentration-response relationship with ametryn and ametribuzin but no EPTC. The ethanol induced major increase DNA damage compared with S10 fraction and the three pesticides. There were not effects in cell viability with treatment EPTC and metribuzin whether or not it had been metabolized. High concentrations of ametryn alone and after it had been metabolized decreased cell viability compared with the negative control. The results demonstrated that the three herbicides needed to be activated by the V. faba root metabolism to produce DNA damage in human peripheral lymphocyte. The alkaline comet technique is a rapid and sensitive assay, to quickly evaluate DNA damage the metabolic activation of herbicide products by V. faba root in human cells in vitro.

Promutagen activation of triazine herbicides metribuzin and ametryn through Vicia faba metabolism inducing sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes in vitro and in V. faba root tip meristems

The aim of our study was the induction of sister chromatid exchanges (SCE) in human lymphocytes in vitro and in root tip meristems of Vicia faba to evaluate the genotoxic effects of metribuzin and ametryn. Direct treatments of these herbicides on human lymphocytes in vitro applied 24 h after the beginning of culture did not induce SCE; however, they showed a cytotoxic effect in the cultures expressed as cellular death. On the contrary, when extracts of V. faba roots, treated for 4 h with metribuzin and ametryn (in vivo activation), were added to the lymphocyte cultures, SCEs were significantly induced with an asymptotic response. Negative responses appeared with the in vitro assays, in which metribuzin and ametryn were added directly to the 48 h lymphocyte cultures for 4 h. Nevertheless, in treatments in which the S10 metabolic mix was added, the SCE frequencies were significantly different to the control, although a concentration-response relationship was only observed with metribuzin. The results showed that both herbicides needed the V. faba metabolism to produce SCE in human lymphocyte cultures. Metribuzin and ametryn applied to V. faba root tip meristems for 4 h increased SCE frequency significantly, and a concentration-response relationship was observed with both herbicides.

In vivo and in vitro promutagen activation by Vicia faba of thiocarbamate herbicides molinate and butylate to products inducing sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocyte cultures

Molinate and butylate treatments for 4 h of Vicia faba root tip meristems, showed that both thiocarbamate herbicides increased significantly SCE frequency. Direct treatments of molinate and butylate on human lymphocytes applied 24 h after the beginning of culture did not induce SCE. When S10 extracts of the Vicia roots, treated for 4 h with molinate and butylate (in vivo activation) were added to lymphocytes (24 h after of the beginning of culture), SCE were induced in a concentration-response manner. The in vitro assays, in which molinate and butylate was added at 48 h lymphocyte cultures for 4 h, showed a negative response, however, in the treatment where the S10 metabolic mix was added the SCE frequencies were significantly different to the control, and the concentration-response relationship was not observed with molinate, but it was obtained with butylate. The results showed that both herbicides needed the V. faba metabolism to produce SCE in human lymphocyte culture.

Activation of aniline by extracts from plants and induction of chromosomal damages in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Activation of aniline by plant extracts was studied by a chromosomal damage induction assay in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells in vitro. Extracts from roots of Vicia faba activated aniline and the activation caused increases in chromosomal aberrations (CAs) and endoreduplicated cells (ERCs), but did not cause sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs). Extracts from Pisum sativum and Lactuca sativa, however, did not activate aniline. All C-hydroxylated metabolites of aniline, o-aminophenol, m-aminophenol and p-aminophenol, induced not only CAs but also SCEs in CHO cells. These results show that the pathway for aniline activation by Vicia extracts is by means other than the C-hydroxylation.

Sister chromatid exchange in human lymphocytes induced by propoxur following plant activation by Vicia faba

Because the carbamate insecticide propoxur induced sister chromatid exchanges (SCE) in Vicia faba but was ineffective in producing SCE in lymphocytes in culture, it was hardly suspected that plant metabolism was involved. Experiments were conducted in which metabolic activation was afforded by Vicia faba roots, and SCE in human lymphocytes in vitro was used to assess cytogenetic damage. Several concentrations of propoxur (250, 500, 1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 ppm) were applied for 4 hr to the roots of Vicia faba. Extracts prepared from these treatments were added to the lymphocyte cultures and a significant increase of SCE frequencies with a concentration-response relationship could be detected. The lymphocyte proliferation kinetics and the proliferation rate index (PRI) were not affected (except in the highest concentration, of 2,000 ppm). This general behavior was in agreement with the presence of an enzymatic system (S10 fraction) in Vicia roots capable of metabolizing or activating the propoxur. With 2,000 ppm, cell necrosis was produced in Vicia; therefore, this extract did not induce SCE in lymphocytes. However, lymphocyte proliferation kinetics were delayed and PRI was significantly decreased. Ethanol, a promutagen activated by this plant, was applied directly to the lymphocyte cultures as a positive control, and the response was negative. On the other hand, the extracts of roots treated with ethanol increased the SCE to more than twice that of the negative control, but the lymphocyte proliferation kinetics and PRI were not affected.

Comparative mutagenicity of chemicals selected for test in the International Program on Chemical Safety's collaborative study on plant systems for the detection of environmental mutagens

A review has been made for the four compounds (maleic hydrazide, methyl nitrosourea, sodium azide, azidoglycerol) tested in the International Program on Chemical Safety's collaborative study on plant systems. Maleic hydrazide (MH) is a weak cytotoxic/mutagenic chemical in mammalian tissues and is classified as a class 4 chemical. In contrast, with few exceptions such as Arabidopsis, MH is a potent mutagen/clastogen in plant systems. The difference in its response between plant and animal tissue is likely due to differences in the way MH is metabolized. MH appears to be noncarcinogenic and has been given a negative NCI/NTP carcinogen rating. Methyl nitrosourea (MNU) is a toxic, mutagenic, radiomimetic, carcinogenic, and teratogenic chemical. It has been shown to be a mutagen in bacteria, fungi, Drosophila, higher plants, and animal cells both in vitro and in vivo. MNU is a clastogen in both animal and human cell cultures, plant root tips and cell cultures inducing both chromosome and chromatid aberrations as well as sister-chromatid exchanges. Carcinogenicity has been confirmed in numerous studies and involves the nervous system, intestine, kidney, stomach, bladder and uterus, in the rat, mouse, and hamster. MNU produces stage-specific teratogenic effects and also interferes with embryonic development. The experimental evidence that strongly indicates the mutagenic effects of MNU underlines the possible hazard of this compound to human beings. The experimental evidence for the stringent handling of this compound is clear. Sodium azide (NaN3) is cytotoxic in several animal and plant systems and functions by inhibiting protein synthesis and replicative DNA synthesis at low dosages. It is mutagenic in bacteria, higher plants and human cells and has been used as a positive control in some systems. In general, tests for clastogenicity have been negative or weakly positive. No evidence of carcinogenicity has been reported in a 2-year study seeking carcinogenic activity in male and female rats. Its advantages in comparison to other efficient mutagens are claimed to be a high production of gene mutations accompanied by a low frequency of chromosomal rearrangements and safer handling because of its nonclastogenic and noncarcinogenic action on humans. Azidoglycerol (AG) is a very potent mutagen in bacteria, yeast and higher plants including Arabidopsis and Tradescantia; however, it only slightly enhances the frequencies of recessive lethals in Drosophila. AG is at best a weak clastogen and is without effect in inducing chromosomal aberrations and SCEs in human peripheral lymphocytes in vitro. In microbial and plant systems, AG is considerably more potent than sodium azide in the maximal frequencies of mutation induced. In particular, in Saccharomyces cerevisae, AG is 3000-fold more mutagenic than sodium azide. Its carcinogenic and teratogenic properties are unknown.

Genetic toxicity of 2-acetylaminofluorene, 2-aminofluorene and some of their metabolites and model metabolites

2-Acetylaminofluorene and 2-aminofluorene are among the most intensively studied of all chemical mutagens and carcinogens. Fundamental research findings concerning the metabolism of 2-acetylaminofluorene to electrophilic derivatives, the interaction of these derivatives with DNA, and the carcinogenic and mutagenic responses that are associated with the resulting DNA damage have formed the foundation upon which much of genetic toxicity testing is based. The parent compounds and their proximate and ultimate mutagenic and carcinogenic derivatives have been evaluated in a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic assays for mutagenesis and DNA damage. The reactive derivatives are active in virtually all systems, while 2-acetylaminofluorene and 2-aminofluorene are active in most systems that provide adequate metabolic activation. Knowledge of the structures of the DNA adducts formed by 2-acetylaminofluorene and 2-aminofluorene, the effects of the adducts on DNA conformation and synthesis, adduct distribution in tissues, cells and DNA, and adduct repair have been used to develop hypotheses to understand the genotoxic and carcinogenic effects of these compounds. Molecular analysis of mutations produced in cell-free, bacterial, in vitro mammalian, and intact animal systems have recently been used to extend these hypotheses.

Plant extracts induce chromosome aberrations and sister-chromatid exchanges in Chinese hamster ovary cells and human lymphocytes

Effects of extracts from Vicia faba were compared with those of Zea mays for the induction of sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) and of chromosome aberrations (CAs) in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. CA induction by the maize extract was also tested in human lymphocytes. The extracts from roots and leaves of Vicia faba induced CAs and SCEs in CHO cells. The extracts from maize leaves also induced SCEs and CAs in CHO cells, and CAs in human lymphocytes. Maize extracts were more potent in inducing SCEs than Vicia extracts and the SCE- and CA-inducing capacity of maize extracts decreased during preincubation before addition to cells.

The metabolic activation of 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine by chlorophyll-containing plant extracts: the relationship between mutagenicity and antimutagenicity

Chlorophyllin, the sodium and copper salt of chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, and chlorophyll b were tested for their ability to inhibit the mutagenic activity of the direct-acting mutagen 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine (NOP) and its plant-activated mutagenic enhancement. All three forms of chlorophyll were antimutagenic against both NOP and its plant-activated product, with chlorophyllin proving most effective. Chlorophyll-containing plant extracts, however, proved very efficient at activating NOP into a mutagen of greater potency. When these extracts were assayed for total chlorophyll content it was found that they contained far less chlorophyll than was required for an antimutagenic effect to occur. Thus, the balance between chemical mutagen activation and/or enhancement by chlorophyll-containing plant extracts and the potential antimutagenicity of these plant extracts is a function of chlorophyll concentration. The data presented here indicate that this balance must be taken into consideration in future studies investigating the efficacy of complex natural plant extracts as antimutagenic substances.

Induction of chromosome damage by aniline and its C-hydroxylated metabolites in the root cells of Vicia faba

The induction of sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) and chromosome aberrations (CAs) by aniline hydrochloride (AH) and its C-hydroxylated metabolites, o-, m- and p-aminophenol, in the root cells of Vicia faba was examined. AH induced CAs, but not SCEs. All the C-hydroxylated metabolites of aniline induced both SCEs and CAs. However, the treatment of cells with these metabolites at concentrations that did not cause significant increases in CAs resulted in significant increases in SCEs. These results seem to suggest that the substance that induced CAs in root cells treated with AH was not the C-hydroxylated metabolites of aniline.

A comparison of SCE test in human lymphocytes and Vicia faba: a hopeful technique using plants to detect mutagens and carcinogens

A comparison of the Vicia faba SCE with the human lymphocyte SCE test was made with regard to their capacity to detect mutagens. Twelve chemical agents that can induce sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) in both Vicia faba root tip cells and human lymphocytes were used. The results indicate that the plant SCE technique is a sensitive test for screening various chemical agents including food preservatives, pesticides and essences which may have mutagenic activity. A new simplified procedure was introduced for differential staining of sister chromatids in Vicia faba.

Induction of chromosome damage by benzo[a]pyrene, 2-aminofluorene and cyclophosphamide in the root cells of Vicia faba

The induction of sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs) and chromosome aberrations (CAs) by benzo[a]pyrene (BP), 2-aminofluorene (2-AF) and cyclophosphamide (CP) in the root cells of Vicia faba was examined. BP and 2-AF induced CAs, but not SCEs. CP induced both SCEs and CAs.