Polymerase chain reaction-based deletion screening of bleomycin induced 6-thioguanine-resistant mutants in Chinese hamster ovary cells: the effects of an inhibitor and a mimic of superoxide dismutase

Effects of Superoxide Dismutase Inhibitors and Glucose on Cell Death and Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species in Pea Leaves

The effects of superoxide dismutase (SOD) inhibitors, diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC), triethylenetetramine (trien), and their combination with glucose on cells of the epidermis from pea leaves of different age (rapidly growing young leaves and slowly growing old leaves) was investigated. DDC and trien caused death of the guard cells as determined by destruction of their nuclei. Glucose did not affect destruction of the nuclei induced by SOD inhibitors in the cells from old leaves, but intensified it in the cells from young leaves. 2-Deoxyglucose, an inhibitor of glycolysis, and propyl gallate, SOD-mimic and antioxidant, suppressed destruction of the nuclei that was caused by SOD inhibitors and glucose in cells of the epidermis from the young, but not from the old leaves. Glucose and trien stimulated, and propyl gallate reduced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the pea epidermis as determined by the fluorescence of 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (DCF). Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), a protonophoric uncoupler of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, suppressed the DCF fluorescence in the guard cells. Treatment of the cells with CCCP followed by its removal with washing increased destruction of the nuclei caused by SOD inhibitors and glucose. In young leaves, CCCP was less effective than in old ones. The findings demonstrate the effects of SOD inhibitors and glucose on the cell death and generation of ROS and could indicate glycolysis-dependent ROS production.

Chemistry and antihypertensive effects of tempol and other nitroxides

Nitroxides can undergo one- or two-electron reduction reactions to hydroxylamines or oxammonium cations, respectively, which themselves are interconvertible, thereby providing redox metabolic actions. 4-Hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl (tempol) is the most extensively studied nitroxide. It is a cell membrane-permeable amphilite that dismutates superoxide catalytically, facilitates hydrogen peroxide metabolism by catalase-like actions, and limits formation of toxic hydroxyl radicals produced by Fenton reactions. It is broadly effective in detoxifying these reactive oxygen species in cell and animal studies. When administered intravenously to hypertensive rodent models, tempol caused rapid and reversible dose-dependent reductions in blood pressure in 22 of 26 studies. This was accompanied by vasodilation, increased nitric oxide activity, reduced sympathetic nervous system activity at central and peripheral sites, and enhanced potassium channel conductance in blood vessels and neurons. When administered orally or by infusion over days or weeks to hypertensive rodent models, it reduced blood pressure in 59 of 68 studies. This was accompanied by correction of salt sensitivity and endothelial dysfunction and reduced agonist-evoked oxidative stress and contractility of blood vessels, reduced renal vascular resistance, and increased renal tissue oxygen tension. Thus, tempol is broadly effective in reducing blood pressure, whether given by acute intravenous injection or by prolonged administration, in a wide range of rodent models of hypertension.

Bleomycin initiates apoptosis of lung epithelial cells by ROS but not by Fas/FasL pathway

Epithelial cells are considered to be a main target of bleomycin-induced lung injury, which leads to fibrosis in vivo. We studied the characteristics of in vitro bleomycin-induced apoptosis in a mouse lung epithelial (MLE) cell line. Bleomycin caused an increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting in oxidative stress, mitochondrial leakage, and apoptosis. These were associated with elevated caspase-8 and resultant caspase-9 activity and with upregulation of Fas expression. Glutathione and inhibitors of caspase-8 or caspase-9, but not of FasL, inhibited these effects, suggesting their dependence on ROS, caspase-8 and -9, in a Fas/FasL-independent pathway. However, postbleomycin-exposed MLE cells were more sensitive to Fas-mediated apoptosis. These results demonstrate that the initial bleomycin-induced oxidative stress causes a direct apoptotic effect in lung epithelial cells involving a regulatory role of caspase-8 on caspase-9. Fas represents an amplification mechanism, and not a direct trigger of bleomycin-induced epithelial cell apoptosis.

Regulation and measurement of oxidative stress in apoptosis

Cells are constantly generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) during aerobic metabolism. As a consequence, each cell is equipped with an extensive antioxidant defence system to combat excessive production of ROS. Oxidative stress occurs in cells when the generation of ROS overwhelms the cell's natural antioxidant defences. There is a growing consensus that oxidative stress and the redox state of a cell plays a pivotal role in regulating apoptosis, a tightly controlled form of cell death in which a cell partakes in its own demise. More recently, a role for reactive nitrogen species (RNI) as both positive and negative regulators of cell death has been established. This review describes the major sources of ROS and RNI in a cell, the control of cell death by these species and the role of antioxidants as regulators of oxidative stress and apoptosis. Finally, the various methods that can be employed in establishing a role for both ROS and RNI in apoptosis will be discussed with particular emphasis on their intracellular detection.

Molecular analysis of mitochondrial DNA mutations from bleomycin-treated rats

In our previous studies, we have shown the mutagenicity of bleomycin (BLM) at the nuclear hprt locus. In the present study we have analyzed mutagenic effects of BLM in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) using short extension-PCR (SE-PCR) method for detection of low-copy deletions. Fisher 344 rats were treated with a single dose of BLM and total DNA preparations from splenic lymphocytes were processed in SE-PCR assay. Spontaneous deletions were typically flanked by direct repeats (78.5%), while the in BLM-treated group, direct repeats were found in only 46.6% of breakpoints. The ratio between deletions based on direct repeats and random sequence deletions changed from 3.67 in control group to 0.87 in BLM-treated animals, which corresponds to an approximate 1.7-fold increase in the deletion mutation frequency. Furthermore, 62.5% of deletions not flanked by direct repeats in the treated group contained cleavage sites for BLM. The localization of breakpoints was not entirely random. We have found four clusters containing deletions from both groups indicative of deletion hot spots. The results indicate that BLM exposure may be associated with the induction of mtDNA mutations, and suggest the utility of SE-PCR method for evaluating drug-induced genotoxicity.

Folk medicine Terminalia catappa and its major tannin component, punicalagin, are effective against bleomycin-induced genotoxicity in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Terminalia catappa L. is a popular folk medicine for preventing hepatoma and treating hepatitis in Taiwan. In this paper, we examined the protective effects of T. catappa leaf water extract (TCE) and its major tannin component, punicalagin, on bleomycin-induced genotoxicity in cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells. Pre-treatment with TCE or punicalagin prevented bleomycin-induced hgprt gene mutations and DNA strand breaks. TCE and punicalagin suppressed the generation of bleomycin-induced intracellular free radicals, identified as superoxides and hydrogen peroxides. The effectiveness of TCE and punicalagin against bleomycin-induced genotoxicity could be, at least in part, due to their antioxidative potentials.

Attenuation of bleomycin-induced Hprt mutant frequency in female and male rats by calorie restriction

Calorie restriction modulates spontaneous and chemically induced tumors and increases maximal life span in experimental animals; however, the mechanism by which calorie restriction exerts its ameliorating effects is not fully elucidated, although reduced levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by calorie restriction has generated much interest. In the present study, we have determined whether or not calorie restriction would affect the mutagenic response in rats treated with bleomycin (BLM) a radiomimetic drug that is associated with DNA damage by a free radical mechanism. Fourteen weeks after weaning, the rats were divided into two groups; ad libitum (AL)-fed and 40% calorie restriction. Both AL and calorie-restricted animals were injected with 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 mg BLM/kg, or with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and they were killed 4 weeks post drug treatment. Lymphocytes from the spleens were seeded in 96-well microtiter plates to determine mutant frequency in the hypoxantine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (Hprt) gene. The mutant frequency in the BLM-treated rats was higher in AL males (P=0.001), and AL females (P=0.0174) than in their calorie-restricted counterparts. The difference in mutagenic response relative to AL males and AL females appeared unrelated to a low percent cloning efficiency seen in the males, since the mean absolute number of Hprt mutant clones was higher in the AL males compared to the females. A reduction in animal weight by calorie restriction was significant in both sexes (P<0.001), but the dose effect appeared non-significant. The results indicate that calorie intake of 60% reduced the mutagenic response of BLM, a compound known to induce oxidative DNA damage, and suggest a possible decrease in ROS as a function of calorie restriction.

Modulation of antioxidant enzymes in bleomycin-treated rats by vitamin C and beta-carotene

Bleomycin (BLM), an antineoplastic drug, is known to induce DNA strand breaks and is also mutagenic in mammalian cells; however, its mechanism of action is not well understood. It has been proposed that BLM cytotoxicity is mediated through the generation of reactive oxygen species. We have determined the effects of BLM on endogenous hepatic antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in rats exposed to BLM in conjunction with dietary vitamins, vitamin C and beta-carotene (BC). Male Fischer 344 rats of two different age groups were treated with BLM in the presence or absence of antioxidant vitamins. In control animals, an age-associated decrease in GPx activity was noted (p < 0.05). The decrease in GPx activity observed in BLM-treated old animals given vitamin C was significant (p < 0.05) compared with BLM-treated young animals fed vitamin C. BC moderately induced GPx and glutathione reductase activities in old BLM-treated animals; however, the increase in GPx was statistically significant (p < 0.05) only compared with old controls. A similar increase was noted in the activities of all the enzymes examined in young animals. Our results indicate that BLM exposure was accompanied by alterations in the activities of endogenous antioxidant enzymes, with a profound increase in activities occurring in old animals. In addition, the observed enzyme activities were modulated by antioxidant vitamin administration. The observation that both vitamins displayed differential effects on the enzyme activities also suggests that vitamin C and BC exert their effects by separate mechanisms.

Reactive oxygen intermediates are involved in the induction of CD95 ligand mRNA expression by cytostatic drugs in hepatoma cells

Oxidative stress has been associated with the induction of programmed cell death. The CD95 ligand/receptor system is a specific mediator of apoptosis. We have used the model of drug-induced apoptosis to assess whether the CD95 ligand mRNA is induced by reactive oxygen intermediates. Treatment of HepG2 hepatoma cells with bleomycin induced the production of reactive oxygen intermediates and, as an additional parameter of oxidative stress, resulted in glutathione (GSH) depletion. In parallel, CD95 ligand mRNA expression was induced. In a similar fashion CD95 ligand mRNA expression increased after treatment with H2O2. Additional treatment with the antioxidant and GSH precursor N-acetylcysteine resulted in partial restoration of intracellular GSH levels and in reduced induction of CD95 ligand mRNA. Induction of CD95 ligand mRNA by bleomycin was further reduced by combined treatment with N-acetylcysteine and deferoxamine. These data suggest a direct role of oxygen radicals in the induction of the CD95 ligand.

A role for apoptosis in the toxicity and mutagenicity of bleomycin in AHH-1 tk+/- human lymphoblastoid cells

The chromosomal mutagen, bleomycin, is also noted for its toxic properties, although the mechanism of cell death is not fully understood. In order to determine if cell death occurred by apoptosis or necrosis, AHH-1 tk+/- cells were exposed to bleomycin and the percentage of viable, apoptotic and necrotic cells quantified by flow cytometry. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the primary manner of cell death was through the apoptosis pathways, that apoptosis was delayed, and that apoptosis was accompanied by an arrest in the G2 phase of the cell cycle. Once apoptosis was established as a mechanism for cell death, the efficiency with which these pathways removed damaged cells from the population was evaluated with the use of specific-locus mutation assays (tk and hprt) as indicators of cells with DNA damage that maintained viability and clonogenicity. Linear regression analysis detected a significant, concentration-dependent increase in the numbers of TFTr clones with the slow-growth phenotype. This suggests that a proportion of cells with bleomycin-induced DNA damage did not undergo cell death by apoptosis and that apoptosis, a mechanism for the destruction of damaged cells, is not fully efficient in the AHH-1 tk +/- cell line.

Polymerase chain reaction-based deletion analysis of spontaneous and arsenite-enhanced gpt mutants in CHO-AS52 cells

In this study, we have examined the mutagenicity of sodium arsenite at the xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase locus (ypt) in a pSV2 gpt-transformed CHO cell line, AS52. Our results provide very weak evidence for arsenite as a gene mutagen because the chemical at high doses and at high cytotoxicity enhances barely a doubling of mutant frequency (MF) and a doubling of the gpt gene deletion frequency compared to controls. We suggest that the increase in MF in arsenite-treated cells results from arsenic, as comutagen, enhancing the induction effect of any unknown endogenous or exogenous factors on the spontaneous mutagenesis of AS52 cells. Nested PCR analysis mutants has a total deletion of the gpt gene. For the spontaneous, 50 microM arsenite- and 100 microM arsenite-enhanced spontaneous mutants in AS52 cells, the percentages of total deletion of the gpt gene are 36.00%, 54.72% and 66.67%, respectively. We suggest that a high proportion of the gene deletion in arsenite-enhanced mutants may be due to the high cytotoxicity of the chemical.

DNA damage and mutagenesis by radiomimetic DNA-cleaving agents: bleomycin, neocarzinostatin and other enediynes

Bleomycin and the enediyne antibiotics effect concerted, simultaneous site-specific free radical attack on sugar moieties in both strands of DNA, resulting in double-strand breaks of defined geometry and chemical structure, as well as abasic sites with closely opposed strand breaks. The hypersensitivity of several mammalian double-strand break repair-deficient mutants to these agents confirms the role of these double-strand breaks in mediating cytotoxicity. In bacteria, mutagenesis by both bleomycin and neocarzinostatin appears to result from replicative bypass of abasic sites, the repair of which is blocked by the presence of closely opposed strand breaks. However, in mammalian cells, such abasic sites decompose to form double-strand breaks, and mutagenesis consists primarily of small deletions, large deletions, and gene rearrangements, all of which probably result from errors in double-strand break repair by a nonhomologous end-joining mechanism. Studies with the radiomimetic antibiotics emphasize the importance of this end-joining repair pathway, and these agents provide useful probes of its mechanistic details, particularly the effects of chemically modified DNA termini on repair.

Adriamycin induces large deletions as a major type of mutation in CHO cells

Adriamycin (ADR), a commonly used cancer chemotherapy antibiotic, exhibits a variety of genotoxicities. In this study, we have examined the mutagenicity of ADR at the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gene (hprt) in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and the xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase locus (gpt) in a pSV2gpt-transformed CHO cell line, AS52. Although ADR induced a dose-dependent increase of mutant frequency at both loci, it was more mutagenic to the gpt gene than to the hprt locus. Multiplex PCR analysis revealed that 35% of the 103 independent ADR-induced HPRT-deficient mutants carried large deletions. Among these deletion mutants, 33% were total gene deletions, 22% affected multiple exons, and 42% involved a single exon, of which most (9/15) were exon 1. The majority (63%) of ADR-induced AS52 mutants had a total deletion of the gpt gene. These observations indicate that ADR induces large deletions as a major type of gene mutation in mammalian cells, suggesting the involvement of reactive oxygen species as one mutagenic pathway in the mutagenesis of ADR.

Polymerase chain reaction-directed DNA sequencing of bleomycin-induced "nondeletion"-type, 6-thioguanine-resistant mutants in Chinese hamster ovary cell derivative AS52: effects of an inhibitor and a mimic of superoxide dismutase

Bleomycin-induced, 6-thioguanine-resistant, "non deletion" mutants pretreated with or without either TRIEN (triethylenetetramine), a superoxide dismutase (SOD) inhibitor, or TEMPOL (4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl), a SOD mimic, were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-directed DNA sequencing in a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell derivative, AS52. Among the 23 bleomycin-induced mutants, six have 3-bp 5'-TGA-3' deletions in the region of 366-371, five have single-base deletions, seven have base substitutions, three have insertions, and two have possible translocations. Among the 16 bleomycin-induced mutants pretreated with TRIEN, six have the 5'-TGA-3' deletion (366-371), two have single-base deletions, one has a 13-bp deletion, four have single-base substitutions, one has a double-base substitution, and two have insertions. Among the 17 bleomycin-induced mutants pretreated with TEMPOL, six have the same TGA deletions, two have single-base deletions, two have single-base insertions, four have single-base substitutions, one mutant has a 12-bp deletion, one has a 13-bp deletion, and one mutant shows no detectable change in its coding region in the DNA sequence. A possible shift from a ROS-mediated mutational spectrum to a spontaneous mutational spectrum by TRIEN further indicates that reactive oxygen species play an important role in bleomycin mutagenesis in mammalian cells.