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Sinden RE. The cell biology of malaria infection of mosquito: advances and opportunities. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:451-66. [PMID: 25557077 PMCID: PMC4409862 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent reviews (Feachem et al.; Alonso et al.) have concluded that in order to have a sustainable impact on the global burden of malaria, it is essential that we knowingly reduce the global incidence of infected persons. To achieve this we must reduce the basic reproductive rate of the parasites to < 1 in diverse epidemiological settings. This can be achieved by impacting combinations of the following parameters: the number of mosquitoes relative to the number of persons, the mosquito/human biting rate, the proportion of mosquitoes carrying infectious sporozoites, the daily survival rate of the infectious mosquito and the ability of malaria-infected persons to infect mosquito vectors. This paper focuses on our understanding of parasite biology underpinning the last of these terms: infection of the mosquito. The article attempts to highlight central issues that require further study to assist in the discovery of useful transmission-blocking measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London and the Jenner Institute, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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2
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Ramakrishnan C, Delves MJ, Lal K, Blagborough AM, Butcher G, Baker KW, Sinden RE. Laboratory maintenance of rodent malaria parasites. Methods Mol Biol 2013; 923:51-72. [PMID: 22990771 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-026-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We provide a series of protocols that have been used for the cyclic transmission of rodent malaria parasites in the laboratory. This is now possible both in vivo and in vitro. We focus on the least "resource intensive" and generic methods that we find applicable to any parasite-host combination. Nonetheless, we recognize that the ability to construct transgenic "reporter" parasites/hosts now permits the use of elegant analytical and imaging technologies both in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo in specific instances. The descriptions given illustrate methods routinely used for the maintenance of P. berghei; where critical, we note important differences when transmitting other parasite species.
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3
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Dechy-Cabaret O, Benoit-Vical F. Effects of Antimalarial Molecules on the Gametocyte Stage of Plasmodium falciparum: The Debate. J Med Chem 2012; 55:10328-44. [DOI: 10.1021/jm3005898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Odile Dechy-Cabaret
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), 205 Route de Narbonne, BP
44099, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, INPT, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
| | - Françoise Benoit-Vical
- CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), 205 Route de Narbonne, BP
44099, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
- Université de Toulouse, UPS, INPT, F-31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
- Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie
and Faculté de Médecine de Rangueil, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
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4
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Sinden RE, Carter R, Drakeley C, Leroy D. The biology of sexual development of Plasmodium: the design and implementation of transmission-blocking strategies. Malar J 2012; 11:70. [PMID: 22424474 PMCID: PMC3315749 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A meeting to discuss the latest developments in the biology of sexual development of Plasmodium and transmission-control was held April 5-6, 2011, in Bethesda, MD. The meeting was sponsored by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH/NIAID) in response to the challenge issued at the Malaria Forum in October 2007 that the malaria community should re-engage with the objective of global eradication. The consequent rebalancing of research priorities has brought to the forefront of the research agenda the essential need to reduce parasite transmission. A key component of any transmission reduction strategy must be methods to attack the parasite as it passes from man to the mosquito (and vice versa). Such methods must be rationally based on a secure understanding of transmission from the molecular-, cellular-, population- to the evolutionary-levels. The meeting represented a first attempt to draw together scientists with expertise in these multiple layers of understanding to discuss the scientific foundations and resources that will be required to provide secure progress toward the design and successful implementation of effective interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Sinden
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK.
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5
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van Dijk MR, Douradinha B, Franke-Fayard B, Heussler V, van Dooren MW, van Schaijk B, van Gemert GJ, Sauerwein RW, Mota MM, Waters AP, Janse CJ. Genetically attenuated, P36p-deficient malarial sporozoites induce protective immunity and apoptosis of infected liver cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:12194-9. [PMID: 16103357 PMCID: PMC1189305 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0500925102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunization with Plasmodium sporozoites that have been attenuated by gamma-irradiation or specific genetic modification can induce protective immunity against subsequent malaria infection. The mechanism of protection is only known for radiation-attenuated sporozoites, involving cell-mediated and humoral immune responses invoked by infected hepatocytes cells that contain long-lived, partially developed parasites. Here we analyzed sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei that are deficient in P36p (p36p(-)), a member of the P48/45 family of surface proteins. P36p plays no role in the ability of sporozoites to infect and traverse hepatocytes, but p36p(-) sporozoites abort during development within the hepatocyte. Immunization with p36p(-) sporozoites results in a protective immunity against subsequent challenge with infectious wild-type sporozoites, another example of a specifically genetically attenuated sporozoite (GAS) conferring protective immunity. Comparison of biological characteristics of p36p(-) sporozoites with radiation-attenuated sporozoites demonstrates that liver cells infected with p36p(-) sporozoites disappear rapidly as a result of apoptosis of host cells that may potentiate the immune response. Such knowledge of the biological characteristics of GAS and their evoked immune responses are essential for further investigation of the utility of an optimized GAS-based malaria vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa R van Dijk
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
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6
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Janse CJ, Waters AP. Plasmodium berghei: the application of cultivation and purification techniques to molecular studies of malaria parasites. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 11:138-43. [PMID: 15275357 DOI: 10.1016/0169-4758(95)80133-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Species of malaria parasites that infect rodents provide models for the study of the biology of malaria parasites that infect humans. In this article, Chris Janse and Andy Waters describe some of the recent advances in the cultivation and purification methodology of one of these species, Plasmodium berghei. The improvement of these techniques, and the increasing knowledge about the molecular biology of P. berghei enhance the value of this particular rodent model for the investigation of many aspects of the biology of Plasmodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Janse
- Laboratory for Parasitology, University of Leiden, The Netherlands
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7
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Franke-Fayard B, Trueman H, Ramesar J, Mendoza J, van der Keur M, van der Linden R, Sinden RE, Waters AP, Janse CJ. A Plasmodium berghei reference line that constitutively expresses GFP at a high level throughout the complete life cycle. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 137:23-33. [PMID: 15279948 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2004.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 363] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2004] [Accepted: 04/08/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a well-established reporter protein for the examination of biological processes. This report describes a recombinant Plasmodium berghei, PbGFPCON, that constitutively expresses GFP in a growth responsive manner in its cytoplasm from a transgene that is integrated into the genome and controlled by the strong promoter from a P. berghei elongation factor-1alpha gene. All life cycle forms of PbGFPCON except for male gametes can be easily visualized by fluorescent microscopy. PbGFPCON showed similar growth characteristics to wild type P. berghei parasites throughout the whole life cycle and can therefore be used as a reference line for future investigations of parasite-host cell interactions. The principle of automated fluorescence-based counting and sorting of live parasites from host cell backgrounds and different parasite forms from complex mixtures such as asynchronous blood stages is established. PbGFPCON allows the visualization and investigation of live parasite stages that are difficult and labor-intensive to observe, such as the liver and mosquito stages. PbGFPCON can be employed to establish the phenotype of independent mutant parasites. With the recent development of a second, independent selectable marker in P. berghei, PbGFPCON is a useful tool to investigate the effect of further genetic modifications on host-parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blandine Franke-Fayard
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Postbus 9600 RC, The Netherlands
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8
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Platel DF, Mangou F, Tribouley-Duret J. High-level chloroquine resistance of Plasmodium berghei is associated with multiple drug resistance and loss of reversal by calcium antagonists. Int J Parasitol 1998; 28:641-51. [PMID: 9602389 DOI: 10.1016/s0020-7519(98)00010-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The chloroquine resistance of Plasmodium falciparum is reversed in vitro by numerous compounds, including calcium antagonists, which could enhance the accumulation of the drug in the parasite food vacuole. However, this mechanism of resistance could be insufficient when the resistance level increases. Using in vitro drug trials on strains of Plasmodium berghei displaying various chloroquine-resistance levels, we confirmed previous results obtained in vivo in the chloroquine-resistant strains of P. berghei are cross-resistant to related drugs (amodiaquine, quinine and mefloquine), the resistance levels to these drugs being related to their analogy to chloroquine. Furthermore, we showed that high-level resistant lines were associated with a loss of drug potentiation by verapamil and nicardipine in vivo, but that the reversal rates obtained in vitro are of low significance. We conclude that the parasite is able to escape the activity of these reversing agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- D F Platel
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie et Parasitologie, U.F.R. des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Université de Bordeaux II, France
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9
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Sinden RE, Butcher GA, Billker O, Fleck SL. Regulation of infectivity of Plasmodium to the mosquito vector. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 1996; 38:53-117. [PMID: 8701799 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60033-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Department of Biology, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, South Kensington, London, UK
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10
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Davies CS, Pudney M, Nicholas JC, Sinden RE. The novel hydroxynaphthoquinone 566C80 inhibits the development of liver stages of Plasmodium berghei cultured in vitro. Parasitology 1993; 106 ( Pt 1):1-6. [PMID: 8479795 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000074746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The causal prophylactic activity of the novel hydroxynaphthoquinone, 566C80, was assessed against the exo-erythrocytic (EE) stages of Plasmodium berghei cultured in the human hepatoma cell line, HepG2. 566C80 was found to be highly active as an inhibitor of EE development and was more active than the established causal prophylactic pyrimethamine. A 566C80 concentration of 1.85 x 10(-9) M, added 3 h after sporozoite invasion, reduced the numbers of EE forms visible at 48 h by 50 degrees o, while the equivalent concentration of pyrimethamine was 1.95 x 10(-8) M.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Davies
- Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Imperial College, London
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11
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Suhrbier A, Sinden RE, Couchman A, Fleck SL, Kumar S, McMillan D. Immunological detection of cytoskeletal proteins in the exoerythrocytic stages of malaria by fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1993; 40:18-23. [PMID: 8457799 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1993.tb04876.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Using monospecific antibodies, the presence and distribution of tubulin, actin, myosin, intermediate filaments, and lamins were examined in the exoerythrocytic liver schizont of Plasmodium berghei by conventional indirect fluorescent antibody methods and confocal laser scanning microscopy. The binding reactivity of the antibodies to parasite proteins was determined by Western blot analysis. The localisation of all antibodies in control host hepatocytes followed expected distributions in both uninfected and infected hepatocytes; by contrast, reactivity to the exoerythrocytic schizont was variable. The parasite reacted positively with selected anti-tubulin, -actin, and -myosin antibodies in both fluorescence and Western blot analysis. Anti-lamin antibodies were positive by confocal indirect fluorescent antibody labelling, but no labelling was detected with anti-intermediate filament antibody. Within the technical limits of resolution of the methods as applied to asynchronous parasite infections, not one of the antibodies reacting positively with the parasite by the indirect fluorescent antibody technique could be shown to identify unequivocally the classic architectural features associated with their respective target organelles, i.e. microtubules, stress-fibres or the nuclear envelope.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Suhrbier
- Department of Biology, Imperial College, London, England
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12
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McNally J, O'Donovan SM, Dalton JP. Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi: development of simple in vitro erythrocyte invasion assays. Parasitology 1992; 105 ( Pt 3):355-62. [PMID: 1461676 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000074527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Erythrocyte invasion assays are described for two species of rodent malaria, namely Plasmodium berghei and P.c. chabaudi. These invasion assays are simple, are carried out using a candle jar and allow a number of assays to be performed simultaneously. Our results demonstrate that both rodent malaria species show an in vitro preference for reticulocytes although the preference of P. c. chabaudi for these cells is not as marked as that of P. berghei. The details of our invasion assays and our results obtained are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J McNally
- School of Biological Sciences, Dublin City University, Republic of Ireland
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13
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Sinden RE, Couchman A, Suhrbier A, Marsh F, Winger L, Ranawaka G. The development of exo-erythrocytic schizonts of Plasmodium berghei in vitro from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated sporozoites: a study using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Parasitology 1991; 103 Pt 1:17-21. [PMID: 1658716 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000059230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Confocal scanning laser microscopy has been used to study the distribution of antigens expressed by the liver stages of Plasmodium berghei in cultured hepatoma cells. The 3-dimensional images obtained of intact parasites clearly show complex patterns of antigen expression not apparent when using conventional IFAT or immunoelectron microscopy. A liver-stage specific antigen (Pbl 1) was shown to be confined to the parasitophorous vacuole; the vacuole has extensive diverticulae extending into the host cell. Small parasites were detected for the first time in 'mature' cultures. These did not represent a distinct population, but the 'tail' of a broad continuum of parasite sizes. Irradiated sporozoites produce a transient population of slow-growing parasites which express a very limited range of antigens de novo in the invaded hepatoma cell. A comparison of the reactivity of normal EE parasites with anti-circumsporozoite antibody and with anti-Pbl 1 suggests that the former reagent may reliably be used to identify sporozoites invading host cells, but should not be used to determine the number of parasites that successfully undergo intrahepatic development. Anti-Pbl-1 indicates on 33% of invaded sporozoites identified by anti-CSP subsequently differentiate.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Department of Biology, Imperial College, London
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14
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Survival and antigenic profile of irradiated malarial sporozoites in infected liver cells. Infect Immun 1990; 58:2834-9. [PMID: 1974886 PMCID: PMC313575 DOI: 10.1128/iai.58.9.2834-2839.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Exoerythrocytic (EE) stages of Plasmodium berghei derived from irradiated sporozoites were cultured in vitro in HepG2 cells. They synthesized several antigens, predominantly but not exclusively those expressed by normal early erythrocytic schizonts. After invasion, over half the intracellular sporozoites, both normal and irradiated, appeared to die. After 24 h, in marked contrast to the normal parasites, EE parasites derived from irradiated sporozoites continued to break open, shedding their antigens into the cytoplasm of the infected host cells. Increasing radiation dosage, which has previously been shown to reduce the ability of irradiated sporozoites to protect animals, correlated with reduced de novo antigen synthesis by EE parasites derived from irradiated sporozoites.
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Suhrbier A, Winger L, O'Dowd C, Hodivala K, Sinden RE. An antigen specific to the liver stage of rodent malaria recognized by a monoclonal antibody. Parasite Immunol 1990; 12:473-81. [PMID: 2255559 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.1990.tb00982.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines currently being evaluated against malaria are based on proteins derived from the blood, sporozoite and sexual stages. Antigens from the liver stage, which is now recognized as the major target of protective sporozoite induced immunity, have received comparatively little attention. This paper describes the generation of a monoclonal antibody (MoAb), which recognizes an antigen specific to the liver stage of the rodent malaria Plasmodium berghei. The antigen is expressed throughout liver stage development and appears to be localized to the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. The MoAb did not affect the growth of liver stages cultured in vitro nor could protection be demonstrated in vivo following passive transfer of the antibody.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Suhrbier
- Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Imperial College, London
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Mons B, Sinden RE. Laboratory models for research in vivo and in vitro on malaria parasites of mammals: Current status. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990; 6:3-7. [PMID: 15463241 DOI: 10.1016/0169-4758(90)90377-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In research aimed at developing strategies for the eradication of human malaria, various species of rodent, avian and non-human primate plasmodia are used as laboratory models. Here Barend Mons and Robert Sinden attempt to summarize the most common laboratory models for mammalian malaria, and to shed some light on their applicability to different aspects of malaria research.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Mons
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Medical Faculty, University of Leiden, PO Box 9605, Wassenaarsweg 62, 2300 RG Leiden, The Netherlands
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17
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Suhrbier A, Wiser MF, Winger L, Harte P, Newton MF, Hodivala KJ, Nicholas J, Sinden RE. Contrasts in antigen expression in the erythrocytic and exoerythrocytic stages of rodent malaria. Parasitology 1989; 99 Pt 2:165-70. [PMID: 2687775 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182000058595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The time and site of expression of five antigens, recognized by monoclonal antibodies raised against blood-stage parasites, were studied in the exoerythrocytic stage of Plasmodium berghei using indirect immunofluorescent antibody staining. Two monoclonal antibodies (W 3.5, I 2.6), which stain the cytoplasm of infected erythrocytes, did not stain the cytoplasm of the infected liver cell but stained the parasite itself suggesting a difference in the antigenic architecture of the erythrocytic and exoerythrocytic parasites. Another antibody (17.6.1) revealed a further difference in the antigenic composition of the blood and liver-stage parasites being expressed almost exclusively in the former. Two others (C139 and 17.3.9) showed broadly similar patterns of expression in these two stages of the malarial life-cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Suhrbier
- Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Imperial College, London
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18
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Janse CJ, Boorsma EG, Ramesar J, Grobbee MJ, Mons B. Host cell specificity and schizogony of Plasmodium berghei under different in vitro conditions. Int J Parasitol 1989; 19:509-14. [PMID: 2674047 DOI: 10.1016/0020-7519(89)90080-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Invasion and intra-erythrocytic growth of two strains of Plasmodium berghei (ANKA and K173) were studied under different in vitro conditions. Some important limiting factors for the mass cultivation of this rodent malaria parasite were reconsidered. Parasites of both strains developed normally from ringforms into mature schizonts in RPMI1640 supplemented with Fetal Calf Serum (FCS). At a temperature of 37 degrees C the duration of the schizogonic cycle was comparable to that of the same parasites developing under in vivo conditions. At 27 degrees C, however, the asexual cycle took 60-72 h. In medium supplemented with mouse serum instead of FCS the growth of the parasites was severely inhibited. Parasites of both strains showed a strict preference for reticulocytes. Red blood cells from rats, mice and hamsters were readily invaded by merozoites from both strains. Erythrocytes from rabbits and guinea pigs were resistant to invasion by P. berghei. It is concluded that host cell specificity technically limits the possibilities for mass cultivation of P. berghei. The validity of recent publications, describing alternative culture systems for this rodent parasite, is discussed.
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Abstract
This review represents a highly personal view of only some of the advances made on the biology of malaria in the period 1986-1987. Progress has stemmed largely from new or refined techniques applied to the logical demonstration of eukaryotic principles; and more rarely from either new conceptual advances, or the revelation of critical differences in the biology of Plasmodium from that of other eukaryotes. Significant steps have been made in the recognition of the complexity of interaction between the parasite and both its vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. It is this very complexity of interaction which warns against the presumption that the successful application of any single control strategy is imminent.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Sinden
- Department of Pure and Applied Biology, Imperial College, London, UK
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20
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Meis JF, Verhave JP. Exoerythrocytic development of malarial parasites. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 1988; 27:1-61. [PMID: 3289327 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)60352-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J F Meis
- Department of Medical Parasitology, St Radboud Hospital, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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