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Qualifying the T-2 Toxin-Degrading Properties of Seven Microbes with Zebrafish Embryo Microinjection Method. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12070460. [PMID: 32708466 PMCID: PMC7405011 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 mycotoxin degradation and detoxification efficiency of seven bacterial strains were investigated with zebrafish microinjection method in three steps ((1) determination of mycotoxin toxicity baseline, (2) examination of bacterial metabolites toxicity, (3) identification of degradation products toxicity). Toxicity of T-2 was used as a baseline of toxic effects, bacterial metabolites of strains as control of bacterial toxicity and degradation products of toxin as control of biodegradation were injected into one-cell stage embryos in the same experiment. The results of in vivo tests were checked and supplemented with UHPLC-MS/MS measurement of T-2 concentration of samples. Results showed that the Rhodococcus erythropolis NI1 strain was the only one of the seven tested (R. gordoniae AK38, R. ruber N361, R. coprophilus N774, R. rhodochrous NI2, R. globerulus N58, Gordonia paraffinivorans NZS14), which was appropriated to criteria all aspects (bacterial and degradation metabolites of strains caused lower toxicity effects than T-2, and strains were able to degrade T-2 mycotoxin). Bacterial and degradation metabolites of the NI1 strain caused slight lethal and sublethal effects on zebrafish embryos at 72- and 120-h postinjection. Results demonstrated that the three-step zebrafish microinjection method is well-suited to the determination and classification of different bacterial strains by their mycotoxin degradation and detoxification efficiency.
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Leal M, González de Mejía E. Revisión: Implicaciones toxicológicas y nutricionales de la toxina T-2 / Review: Toxicological and nutritional implications of T-2 toxin. FOOD SCI TECHNOL INT 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/108201329700300402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trichothecenes are mycotoxins produced by species of the genus Fusarium. These toxins are associated with health problems in humans and animals. The most common trichothecenes in cereals are deoxynivalenol, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, nivalenol, neosolaniol and T-2 toxin; the latter is the most widely studied because it is easy to produce in the laboratory. The effects of T-2 toxicosis include dermatonecrosis, reduced body weight and efficiency of food utilization, severe diarrhoea, haemorrhage, necrosis of the upper alimentary tract, anaemia, immuno suppression ; and in birds, poor feathering. This paper reviews the latest information about the occurrence, chemical characteristics, toxicity, metabolic alterations, biotransformation and detoxifi cation methods of the T-2 toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Leal
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Apartado Postal 2-29, Querétaro, Qro. 76020 México
| | - E. González de Mejía
- Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro. Facultad de Química. Centro Universitario. Cerro de las Campanas. Querétaro, Qro. 76049 México
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Zhang X, Kuča K, Dohnal V, Dohnalová L, Wu Q, Wu C. Military potential of biological toxins. J Appl Biomed 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jab.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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4
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Chattopadhyay P, Islam J, Goyary D, Agnihotri A, Karmakar S, Banerjee S, Singh L, Veer V. Subchronic dermal exposure to T-2 toxin produces cardiac toxicity in experimental Wistar rats. Toxicol Ind Health 2013; 32:485-92. [DOI: 10.1177/0748233713503373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Our study aimed to determine the cardiac toxicities of T-2 toxin, a representative mycotoxin that frequently contaminates maize, cereals, and other agricultural products, harvested and stored under damp and cold conditions. Dermal exposure to T-2 toxin caused severe cardiotoxicity in experimental Wistar rats. Electrocardiography studies showed the conduction abnormalities including prolongation of the QT and corrected QT interval, shortening of the PR interval, and tachycardia. Biochemical studies also reported the toxicity of T-2 toxin. T-2 toxin induced acute cardiotoxicity in rats and characterized by significant ( p < 0.05) elevation of serum troponin I, creatine kinase (CK) isoenzyme MB, CK isoenzyme NAC, and lactate dehydrogenase as compared to control rats. It is concluded that cardiotoxicity effects of T-2 toxin are thought to be due to direct action on electrocardiac potentials and biochemical changes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Johirul Islam
- Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Defence Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India
| | - Danswrang Goyary
- Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Defence Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India
| | - Amit Agnihotri
- Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Defence Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India
| | - Sanjev Karmakar
- Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Defence Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India
| | - Subham Banerjee
- Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Defence Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India
| | - Lokendra Singh
- Directorate of Life Sciences, Defence Research and Development Organization, New Delhi, India
| | - Vijay Veer
- Pharmaceutical Technology Division, Defence Research Laboratory, Tezpur, India
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5
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Herrmann A, Rosén J, Jansson D, Hellenäs KE. Evaluation of a generic multi-analyte method for detection of >100 representative compounds correlated to emergency events in 19 food types by ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1235:115-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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6
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Li Y, Wang Z, Beier RC, Shen J, De Smet D, De Saeger S, Zhang S. T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin: review of toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:3441-3453. [PMID: 21417259 DOI: 10.1021/jf200767q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the toxicity and metabolism of T-2 toxin and analytical methods used for the determination of T-2 toxin. Among the naturally occurring trichothecenes in food and feed, T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic fungal secondary metabolite produced by various species of Fusarium. Following ingestion, T-2 toxin causes acute and chronic toxicity and induces apoptosis in the immune system and fetal tissues. T-2 toxin is usually metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites. Consequently, there is a possibility of human consumption of animal products contaminated with T-2 toxin and its metabolites. Several methods for the determination of T-2 toxin based on traditional chromatographic, immunoassay, or mass spectroscopy techniques are described. This review will contribute to a better understanding of T-2 toxin exposure in animals and humans and T-2 toxin metabolism, toxicity, and analytical methods, which may be useful in risk assessment and control of T-2 toxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshen Li
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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7
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Holstege CP, Bechtel LK, Reilly TH, Wispelwey BP, Dobmeier SG. Unusual But Potential Agents of Terrorists. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2007; 25:549-66; abstract xi. [PMID: 17482032 DOI: 10.1016/j.emc.2007.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Emergency personnel are tasked with the daunting job of being the first to evaluate and manage victims of a terrorist attack. Numerous potential chemical agents could be used by terrorists. The challenge for first responders and local hospital emergency personnel is to prepare for a terrorist event that might use one or more of these agents. As part of that preparation, emergency physicians should have a basic understanding of potential chemical terrorist agents. It is beyond the scope of this article to review all potential terrorist agents. Rather, four potential agents have been chosen for review: sodium monofluoroacetate, trichothecene mycotoxins, vomiting agents, and saxitoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher P Holstege
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908-0774, USA.
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Guerre P, Eeckhoutte C, Burgat V, Galtier P. The effects of T-2 toxin exposure on liver drug metabolizing enzymes in rabbit. FOOD ADDITIVES AND CONTAMINANTS 2000; 17:1019-26. [PMID: 11271836 DOI: 10.1080/02652030050207819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
High doses of T-2 toxin are known to decrease protein synthesis and mono-oxygenase activities in rat liver. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether exposure at a low dose could alter the normal metabolism of the xenobiotic by the liver. Three doses of T-2 toxin, dissolved in olive oil, were orally and daily administered to New Zealand white rabbits for five days. At 0.5 mg/kg, three of the five animals died, whereas only a weak decrease in body weight gain and moderate signs of toxicity occurred in rabbits receiving 0.25 mg/kg/day, and the body weight increased without signs of toxicity at 0.1 mg/kg/day. At 0.25 mg/kg/day, total liver microsomal P450 content, and the activities of aminopyrine and benzphetamine N-demethylases, pentoxyresorufin O-depentylase, glutathione S-transferases accepting 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene as substrates, were decreased. By contrast, ethylmorphine and erythromycin N-demethylases, ethoxyresorufin and methoxyresorufin O-dealkylases, aniline hydroxylase, and UDP-glucuronyltransferase accepting p-nitrophenol as substrate, were unaffected. The expression of P450 1A1, 1A2, 2A1, and 2B4, but not P450 2C3 and 3A6, were also decreased, whereas microsomal conjugated dienes, fluorescent substances, and malondialdehyde contents were increased. At 0.1 mg/kg/day, neither significant effects on drug metabolizing enzymes nor microsomal oxidative damages were obtained. Taken together, these results suggest that a short exposure time to the mycotoxin would not be associated with significant changes in the normal metabolism of xenobiotics by the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Guerre
- Laboratoire de Pharmacie-Toxicologie, E.N.V.T., 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076 Toulouse, France
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9
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Subclinic effect of the administration of T-2 Toxin and Nivalenol in mice. Mycotoxin Res 1994; 10:85-96. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03192257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/1993] [Accepted: 09/22/1994] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Wang JS, Busby WF, Wogan GN. Comparative tissue distribution and excretion of orally administered [3H]diacetoxyscirpenol (anguidine) in rats and mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1990; 103:430-40. [PMID: 2339416 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(90)90316-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A quantitative comparison of tissue distribution and excretion of an orally administered sublethal dose of [3H]diacetoxyscirpenol (anguidine) was made in rats and mice 90 min, 24 hr, and 7 days after treatment. Total recoveries of 95-100% were obtained. Approximately 90% of the dose was excreted in urine and feces during the first 24 hr with a feces:urine ratio of about 1:4.5 in both species. Carcass and tissue radioactivity dropped rapidly during the first 24 hr but remained relatively constant at low, but detectable, levels (1.5-3.5% of dose) over the course of the experiment. Few substantive interspecies differences were noted in tissue distribution. At 90 min the highest percentage of dose was in tissues involved in sequestering diacetoxyscirpenol because of high body water/lipid content (carcass, skin) or the absorption (stomach, small intestine), metabolism (liver), or excretion (kidney) of the toxin. The rank order of these tissues was generally stable over the course of the experiment. When data were expressed as specific radioactivity (dpm/g tissue) instead, the carcass and skin dropped from the top rank tissues at 90 min and were replaced by the spleen and cecum. At 24 hr and 7 days the top-ranked order of tissues shifted to include organs associated with trichothecene-induced toxicity such as the lymphohematopoietic system (spleen, thymus, and femur bone marrow), heart, and testis (in mouse) as well as the cecum and large intestine. In addition, the rate of loss of radioactivity with time generally did not decrease as rapidly in these target organs as observed in liver, kidney, skin, and carcass. Brain radioactivity, though very low, also diminished relatively slowly. Significant differences in specific radioactivity which did occur between the rat and mouse tended to occur in target organs and with the higher levels present in the mouse. These data were discussed in terms of interspecies differences in lethality and target organ toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Wang
- Division of Toxicology, Whitaker College of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139
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11
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Fairhurst S, Knight R, Marrs TC, Scawin JW, Spurlock MS, Swanston DW. Percutaneous toxicity of ethylene glycol monomethyl ether and of dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether in the rat. Toxicology 1989; 57:209-15. [PMID: 2749747 DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(89)90166-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The subacute percutaneous toxicity of dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether (DPM) in male rats dosed 5 days/week for 4 weeks under both occluded and unoccluded conditions has been assessed and compared to the percutaneous toxicity of ethylene glycol monomethyl ether (EGM). DPM caused no significant changes in the clinical chemistry, haematology, or pathology, whereas EGM caused changes in the haematology and clinical chemistry, and both testicular and bone marrow damage at doses of 1000 mg/kg per day.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fairhurst
- Toxicology and Pathology Sections, Chemical Defence Establishment, Salisbury, Wiltshire, U.K
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12
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Galtier P, Paulin F, Eeckhoutte C, Larrieu G. Comparative effects of T-2 toxin and diacetoxyscirpenol on drug metabolizing enzymes in rat tissues. Food Chem Toxicol 1989; 27:215-20. [PMID: 2786491 DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(89)90158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The effects of T-2 toxin and diacetoxyscirpenol on tissue drug-metabolizing enzymes in young male rats were compared. Mycotoxicoses were produced by daily oral administration of toxins at 1.0 mg/kg body weight for 1, 4 or 8 days. Many hepatic, renal and pulmonary oxidative and conjugative enzymes were measured in animals killed 24 hr following the last administration. The effects of the two trichothecene mycotoxins were generally similar. In liver the decrease in microsomal and cytosolic proteins paralleled the decline in total plasma proteins or the increase in plasma GOT activity. Hepatic microsomal cytochrome P-450 decreased in rats receiving trichothecenes for 8 days. This effect was more marked when aminopyrine, benzphetamine, ethylmorphine and ethoxycoumarin dealkylations or aniline and benzopyrene hydroxylations were measured. p-nitrophenol glucuronyltransferase activity was enhanced in animals receiving at least one administration of trichothecenes, whereas there was no change in conjugation to glutathione or acetate. In other tissues, there was no change in any renal enzymes whereas a significant rise in pulmonary monooxygenase was observed in T-2 toxin administered to rats for 4 or 8 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Galtier
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, INRA, Toulouse, France
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Suneja SK, Wagle DS, Ram GC. Effect of oral administration of T-2 toxin on glutathione shuttle enzymes, microsomal reductases and lipid peroxidation in rat liver. Toxicon 1989; 27:995-1001. [PMID: 2799841 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(89)90150-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Effects of T-2 toxin on liver lipid peroxidation, glutathione shuttle enzymes and microsomal reductases have been studied in rats at 8, 16 and 24 hr after feeding a single dose of toxin (2.0 mg/kg) and at 7, 14 and 21 days after feeding of toxin (0.75 mg/kg) daily. Feeding of a single dose of T-2 toxin caused significant increase in liver lipid peroxidation in rats at 8, 16 and 24 hr post treatment. The liver lipid peroxidation was also significantly increased at 14 and 21 days after feeding of 0.75 mg/kg of T-2 toxin daily to rats. The activities of liver GSH-shuttle enzymes, i.e. glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, were significantly higher in rats after both feeding schedules of T-2 toxin. NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity was significantly lower at 8, 16 and 24 hr in liver of rats fed a single dose of T-2 toxin, whereas NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase was significantly higher until 16 hr and then declined below normal at 24 hr post treatment. In rats fed multiple doses of T-2 toxin, both liver microsomal reductases were significantly reduced. These results suggest that T-2 toxin/or its metabolites in the liver may be involved in the generation of free radicals which cause the observed increase in lipid peroxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Suneja
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington 06032
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14
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Suneja SK, Wagle DS, Ram GC. Liver lipid metabolism in T-2 toxicosis. I. Effects of a single dose feeding of T-2 toxin to rats. Arch Toxicol 1987; 60:382-7. [PMID: 3662811 DOI: 10.1007/bf00295759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The acute effects of oral administration of a single dose of T-2 toxin (2.0 mg/kg body wt) to rats on whole liver lipid metabolism were studied at 8, 16 and 24 h post-treatment. Administration of T-2 toxin significantly increased liver and microsomal total lipids, free cholesterol, esterified cholesterol and triglycerides initially at 8 h, which subsequently returned to control values at 24 h. However, no significant alterations were observed in the contents of whole liver and liver microsomal total phospholipids and phosphatidyl choline, except that phosphatidyl ethanolamine and sphingomyelin + lysophosphatidyl ethanolamine contents in liver at 16 and 24 h and sphingomyelin + lysophosphatidyl ethanolamine content in liver microsomes at all three periods were significantly lower. The incorporation of 1-14C-acetate into whole liver and liver microsomal total lipids was reduced at 16 and 24 h post feeding. However, the incorporation of 1-14C-acetate into liver and microsomal free cholesterol, esterified cholesterol and triglycerides was significantly higher at 8 h, subsequently returning to the control value at 24 h; incorporation was significantly lower even into microsomal triglycerides. The incorporation of 1-14C-acetate into liver and its microsomal total phospholipids, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine and sphingomyelin + lysophosphatidyl ethanolamine, was significantly decreased at all three periods post toxin treatment. The results suggested that T-2 toxin inhibited the incorporation of 14C-acetate mainly into liver and its microsomal phospholipids and their subfractions in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Suneja
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Haryana Agricultural University, India
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Abstract
Recent reports suggest that lipid peroxidation may be involved in the toxicity of T-2 toxin. In the present study the influence of T-2 toxin on two parameters of lipid peroxidation was examined: the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive material in isolated hepatocytes and liver homogenates from rats and ethane exhalation in vivo. In isolated hepatocytes there was no significant increase in thiobarbituric acid reactive material, neither after addition of T-2 toxin in vitro nor when the toxin had been applied to the rats 15 hr before preparation of hepatocytes. In liver homogenates the amount of thiobarbituric acid reactive material was increased up to 50% over the controls, depending on the dose of T-2 toxin. The increased values are difficult to interpret, because the extent of the increase depends on the method used for determination of thiobarbituric acid reactive material. Measuring another parameter of lipid peroxidation, i.e. ethane exhalation, there was no difference between the T-2 toxin treated rats and the controls whereas carbon tetrachloride treated rats exhaled high amounts of ethane. These results suggest that lipid peroxidation does not play a major role in T-2 toxin toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schuster
- Walther-Straub-Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universität München, F.R.G
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Fairhurst S, Marrs TC, Parker HC, Scawin JW, Swanston DW. Acute toxicity of T2 toxin in rats, mice, guinea pigs, and pigeons. Toxicology 1987; 43:31-49. [PMID: 3810651 DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(87)90072-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The acute intravenous, intragastric, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal and intratracheal toxicity of T2 toxin has been studied in rats, mice, guinea-pigs, and pigeons. The acute LD50 values obtained varied between 1.0 and 14 mg X kg-1, there being little difference between the various routes in any given species. T2 caused vomiting in pigeons at doses of one fifth or less the LD50. In rats doses of 3.0 and 5.0 mg X kg-1 T2 produced lymphopenia, reticulocytosis, and in the highest dose groups normoblastaemia. Additionally, changes in plasma alkaline phosphatase and aspartate aminotransferase activities were seen. Histological changes were observed in lymphoid organs and were most severe in the thymus, lymph nodes, and Peyer's patches. The spleen was less severely affected. Gastrointestinal changes consisting of dead and dying lymphoid cells throughout the lamina propria were seen together with, in some cases, mucosal ulceration. The time course of the development and of the reversal of the changes was followed.
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