The isolation of a toxic factor from sawfly (Lophyrotoma interrupta klug) larvae

Body distribution of toxic peptides in larvae of a pergid and an argid sawfly species

Larvae of most Pergidae and Argidae (Symphyta: Tenthredinoidea) species contain toxic peptides such as pergidin and lophyrotomin. Here, larval hemolymph and organs of the pergid Lophyrotoma zonalis and the argid Arge pagana were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The major identified peptides were pergidin and 4-valinepergidin in L. zonalis, whereas pergidin and lophyrotomin in A. pagana. The storage period prior to chemical analysis was longer for the samples of the pergid than the argid species, which influenced peptide concentrations. In both species, however, the peptides occurred in decreasing order of concentration, first in the hemolymph, then in the integument, while minor amounts of the peptides were detected in other organs such as gut and fat body. By separating the cuticle of the pergid from the remaining integument, the peptides were found in equivalent amounts in each of these two body structures. The results suggest that the peptides play an important role in the defence of these sawfly larvae against predators.

Toxic peptides occur frequently in pergid and argid sawfly larvae

Toxic peptides containing D-amino acids are reported from the larvae of sawfly species. The compounds are suspected to constitute environmental contaminants, as they have killed livestock grazing in areas with congregations of such larvae, and related larval extracts are deleterious to ants. Previously, two octapeptides (both called lophyrotomin) and three heptapeptides (pergidin, 4-valinepergidin and dephosphorylated pergidin) were identified from three species in the family Pergidae and one in Argidae. Here, the hypothesis of widespread occurrence of these peptides among sawflies was tested by LC-MS analyses of single larvae from eight pergid and 28 argid species, plus nine outgroup species. At least two of the five peptides were detected in most sawfly species, whereas none in any outgroup taxon. Wherever peptides were detected, they were present in each examined specimen of the respective species. Some species show high peptide concentrations, reaching up to 0.6% fresh weight of 4-valinepergidin (1.75 mg/larva) in the pergid Pterygophorus nr turneri. All analyzed pergids in the subfamily Pterygophorinae contained pergidin and 4-valinepergidin, all argids in Arginae contained pergidin and one of the two lophyrotomins, whereas none of the peptides was detected in any Perginae pergid or Sterictiphorinae argid (except in Schizocerella pilicornis, which contained pergidin). Three of the four sawfly species that were previously known to contain toxins were reanalyzed here, resulting in several, often strong, quantitative and qualitative differences in the chemical profiles. The most probable ecological role of the peptides is defense against natural enemies; the poisoning of livestock is an epiphenomenon.

Characterization and biochemical analyses of venom from the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

During parasitism, the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) induces a developmental arrest in host pupae that is sustained until the fly is either consumed by developing larvae or the onset of death. Bioassays using fluids collected from the female reproductive system (calyx, alkaline gland, acid gland, and venom reservoir) indicated that the venom gland and venom reservoir are the sources of the arrestant and inducer(s) of death. Infrared spectroscopic analyses revealed that crude venom is acidic and composed of amines, peptides, and proteins, which apparently are not glycosylated. Reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and sodium dodecyl polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) confirmed the proteinaceous nature of venom and that it is composed mostly of mid to high molecular weight proteins in the range of 13 to 200.5 kilodaltons (kDa). Ammonium sulfate precipitation and centrifugal size exclusion membranes were used to isolate venom proteins. SDS-PAGE protein profiles of the isolated venom fractions displaying biological activity suggest that multiple proteins contribute to arresting host development and eliciting death. Additionally, HPLC fractionation coupled with use of several internal standards implied that two of the low molecular weight proteins were apamin and histamine. However, in vitro assays using BTI-TN-5B1-4 cells contradict the presence of these agents.

Toxicity and uptake mechanism of cylindrospermopsin and lophyrotomin in primary rat hepatocytes

The toxicities and uptake mechanisms of two hepatotoxins, namely cylindrospermopsin and lophyrotomin, were investigated on primary rat hepatocytes by using microcystin-LR (a well-known hepatotoxin produced by cyanobacteria) as a comparison. Isolated rat hepatocytes were incubated with different concentrations of hepatotoxins for 0, 24, 48 and 72 h. The cell viability was assayed by the tetrazolium-based (MTT) assay. Microcystin-LR, cylindrospermopsin and lophyrotomin all exhibited toxic effects on the primary rat hepatocytes with 72-h LC(50) of 8, 40 and 560 ng/ml, respectively. The involvement of the bile acid transport system in the hepatotoxin-induced toxicities was tested in the presence of two bile acids, cholate and taurocholate. Results showed that the bile acid transport system was responsible for the uptake, and facilitated the subsequent toxicities of lophyrotomin on hepatocytes. This occurred to a much lesser extent with cylindrospermopsin. With its smaller molecular weight, passive diffusion might be one of the possible mechanisms for cylindrospermopsin uptake into hepatocytes. This was supported by incubating a permanent cell line, KB (devoid of bile acid transport system), with cylindrospermopsin which showed cytotoxic effects. No inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A by cylindrospermopsin or lophyrotomin was found. This indicated that other toxic mechanisms besides protein phosphatase inhibition were producing the toxicities of cylindrospermopsin and lophyrotomin, and that they were unlikely to be potential tumor promoters.

Unique toxic peptides isolated from sawfly larvae in three continents

D-Amino acid containing peptides have been found to be responsible for sawfly larvae poisoning in many parts of the world. These compounds, unique in the animal kingdom, were isolated from three different species of sawfly indigenous to Australia, Denmark and South America. The octapeptide, lophyrotomin, is the major toxin in the Australian and Danish species and is present in small amounts in the South American sawfly. Pergidin, the main toxin in the South American sawfly, is a heptapeptide containing a phosphoseryl residue. This, as far as we are aware, is the first example of such a peptide to be isolated from an animal source. Small amounts of pergidin have been found in the other two species. All available evidence suggests that both peptides are biosynthesised 'de novo' possibly as a protective device, however it cannot be excluded that microorganisms may be responsible. These compounds are stable to enzymatic breakdown because of their configuration and their strong chemical bonding and lipophilic character provide a potential for residues to remain in the host animal and cause significant changes.