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Mast Cells Modulate the Immune Response and Redox Status of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Induced Venom Pathogenesis. Inflammation 2021; 45:509-527. [PMID: 34608585 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-021-01562-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Androctonus autralis hector (Aah) scorpion venom involved cellular and molecular mechanisms resulting in multi-organ dysfunction. However, little is reported about the effects of venom on the gastrointestinal axis. Mast cells (MCs) are known to play a crucial role in modulating immune response of the gut. This study aims to investigate the involvement of this cell type in venom-induced gastric and intestinal disorders in a time course (3 and 24h). The obtained results revealed that Aah scorpion venom induced inflammatory cell infiltration as shown by the increase of the myeloperoxidase and eosinophil peroxidase activities. Overexpression of the c-kit receptor (CD117) severely imbalanced the redox status with depletion of antioxidant systemic accompanied by gastrointestinal tissue damage. Moreover, an increased level of lactate dehydrogenase in the serum was correlated with tissue injuries. Pharmacological inhibition of MCs targeting tyrosine kinase (TK) reduces the generation of reactive oxygen species and normalizes catalase, and gluthation S-transferase activities to their physiological levels. In addition, histopathological alterations were restored after pretreatment with c-kit receptor inhibitor associated with a considerable reduction of MC density. Interestingly, obtained results indicate that MCs might be involved in gastric modulation and intestinal inflammation through c-kit signaling following sub-cutaneous Aah venom injection.
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Behavioral, histopathological and biochemical impairments observed in mice envenomed by the scorpion: Hottentota gentili (Pallary, 1924). Toxicon 2015; 103:19-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Heidarpour M, Ennaifer E, Ahari H, Srairi-Abid N, Borchani L, Khalili G, Amini H, Anvar AA, Boubaker S, El-Ayeb M, Shahbazzadeh D. Histopathological changes induced by Hemiscorpius lepturus scorpion venom in mice. Toxicon 2012; 59:373-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Revised: 12/15/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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da Silva JG, da Silva Soley B, Gris V, do Rocio Andrade Pires A, Caderia SMSC, Eler GJ, Hermoso APM, Bracht A, Dalsenter PR, Acco A. Effects of the Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venom on hepatic metabolism and oxidative stress. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2010; 25:195-203. [PMID: 21671311 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.20376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Revised: 06/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms present different action mechanisms because of their complex composition, represented mainly by toxins and enzymes. This work aimed to investigate the effects of the Crotalus durissus terrificus(Cdt) venom in the liver. Wistar rats were inoculated intraperitoneally with saline (control) or Cdt venom. After 3, 4, or 6 h, the following parameters were analyzed: (a) hepatic function, (b) oxidative stress parameters, and (c) the metabolism of alanine in the isolated perfused liver. Plasma activities of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase and hepatic glutathione S-transferase and catalase presented significant elevation in rats inoculated with 300 μg ⋅ kg(-1) Cdt venom. Liver lipoperoxidation was enormously increased by venom doses of 100, 200, and 300 μg ⋅kg(-1) , whereas glutathione S-transferase was not changed. Perfused livers from rats inoculated with 1500 μg ⋅kg(-1) venom showed increased production of lactate, pyruvate, and ammonia when alanine was the metabolic substrate. These results demonstrate that the Cdt venom can produce several changes in hepatocytes. The causes of the changes are possibly related to the disequilibrium in the redox homeostasis but also to specific needs of the poisoned organism, for example, an increased supply of lactate and pyruvate in response to an increased activity of the Cori cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Golart da Silva
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Paraná, Biological Science Sector, Jardim das Américas, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
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de Oliveira Christoff A, de Oliveira A, Chaim OM, Lugarini D, Bastos Pereira AL, Paludo KS, Queiroz Telles JE, Bracht A, Veiga SS, Acco A. Effects of the venom and the dermonecrotic toxin LiRecDT1 of Loxosceles intermedia in the rat liver. Toxicon 2008; 52:695-704. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2008] [Revised: 07/31/2008] [Accepted: 08/05/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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de Roodt AR, Estevez-Ramírez J, Litwin S, Magaña P, Olvera A, Alagón A. Toxicity of two North American Loxosceles (brown recluse spiders) venoms and their neutralization by antivenoms. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2007; 45:678-87. [PMID: 17849243 DOI: 10.1080/15563650701397001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The toxic, biochemical, and immunological characteristics of L. boneti and L. reclusa venoms and its neutralization by anti-L. boneti and anti-L. reclusa antivenoms were studied. The electrophoretic profile showed very similar patterns and the toxic activities were very close. Immunological studies showed cross-reactivity among L. boneti and L. reclusa venoms, with L. boneti and L. reclusa experimental antivenoms, and anti-L. gaucho and anti-L. laeta antivenoms. The venom of L. laeta showed low immunological reactivity with the North American Loxosceles antivenoms. Experimental anti-North American Loxosceles antivenoms protected mice of the systemic toxicity and were able to prevent necrosis in rabbit skin after the injection of the venom. Both antivenoms displayed cross neutralization. The results showed that both Loxosceles venoms have very close toxic, biochemical, and immunological characteristics, and that either monospecific antivenoms or an antivenom raised with L. boneti and L. reclusa venoms as immunogens could be useful for treating bites by North American Loxosceles spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adolfo Rafael de Roodt
- Instituto Nacional de Producción de Biológicos A. N. L. I. S. "Dr. Carlos Gregorio Malbrán," Ministerio de Salud y Ambiente, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Abstract
Brown recluse spider bite is a common diagnosis in almost every state in America. In fact, cases have been reported in areas where the spider has never been seen. A review of medical literature reveals that most current concepts regarding brown recluse spider envenomation are based on supposition. In this article, we attempt to review critically our present understanding of brown recluse bites with a focus on the published evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Brent Furbee
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Room AG373, 1701 North Senate Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46206, USA.
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Patel KD, Modur V, Zimmerman GA, Prescott SM, McIntyre TM. The necrotic venom of the brown recluse spider induces dysregulated endothelial cell-dependent neutrophil activation. Differential induction of GM-CSF, IL-8, and E-selectin expression. J Clin Invest 1994; 94:631-42. [PMID: 7518841 PMCID: PMC296140 DOI: 10.1172/jci117379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) venom induces severe dermonecrotic lesions. The mechanism for this is unknown but presents an interesting paradox: necrosis is completely dependent on the victim's neutrophils, yet neutrophils are not activated by the venom. We show Loxosceles venom is a potent, but disjointed, endothelial cell agonist. It weakly induced E-selectin expression, but not intercellular adhesion molecule-1 or IL-6 expression, yet significantly stimulated release of IL-8 and large amounts of GM-CSF by 4 h. In contrast, TNF strongly induced all of these, except for GM-CSF. PMN bound to E-selectin on venom-activated endothelial cells, apparently via counterreceptors different from those that bind E-selectin on TNF alpha-activated monolayers. Notably, PMN bound venom-activated monolayers only at intercellular junctions, did not polarize, and completely failed to migrate beneath the monolayer. Despite this, bound PMN demonstrated increased intracellular Ca2+ levels and secreted primary and secondary granule markers. The latter event was suppressed by sulfones used to treat envenomation. We have defined a new endothelial cell agonist, Loxosceles venom, that differentially stimulates the inflammatory response of endothelial cells. This, in turn, leads to a dysregulated PMN response where adhesion and degranulation are completely dissociated from shape change and transmigration.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Patel
- Nora Eccles Harrison Cardiovascular Research and Training Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City 84112
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Atkinson RK, Wright LG. The involvement of collagenase in the necrosis induced by the bites of some spiders. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992; 102:125-8. [PMID: 1358516 DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(92)90053-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
1. The midgut extracts of 13 Australian spider species produced cellular disruption in mouse skin in tissue culture conditions. 2. Microbial collagenase and the venoms of some of these species had similar effects. 3. Five venoms also caused severe dermonecrosis in living mice. 4. Pre-mixing the venoms with L-cysteine caused complete in vivo and partial in vitro inhibition of their effects. 5. It was concluded that collagenase is a major factor in the aetiology of necrotic arachnidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K Atkinson
- School of Applied Science, University College of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
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Strain GM, Snider TG, Tedford BL, Cohn GH. Hyperbaric oxygen effects on brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) envenomation in rabbits. Toxicon 1991; 29:989-96. [PMID: 1949069 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(91)90081-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Human loxoscelism was modeled in albino rabbits by injection of brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) venom, and the effects of daily or twice-daily hyperbaric oxygen treatment on wound healing were investigated. Lesions similar to those seen in humans were produced in rabbits by intradermal injection of 200 microliters of a venom extract (0.21 microgram protein per microliter), including edema and erythema, ischemia and cyanosis in the first 12 hr, extensive purpura by 24 hr, and crateriform ulcer formation by day four, with induration and eschar formation. Hyperbaric oxygen treatments, consisting of two atmospheres absolute (2 ATA) for 60 min, were applied daily (n = 8) or twice daily (n = 8), while control animals (n = 8) received no treatment. Treatments were initiated 72 hr after venom injection (day 3) to duplicate typical clinical treatment delays, and were administered for seven consecutive days. No significant effects of hyperbaric oxygen treatment on lesion healing were seen as measured by lesion area. However, histologic evaluation of wound tissue collected at euthanasia on day 24 showed clear differences between rabbits receiving twice-daily treatments and those receiving daily or no treatment. The former showed complete re-epithelization or slight ulceration, while the latter usually had necrotic cavities extending into the dermis, with myonecrosis and inflammatory cell accumulation. Thus, no superficial differences were seen between groups, but twice-daily treatments resulted in enhanced recovery at the histologic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M Strain
- Department of Veterinary Physiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 70803-8420
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A study of the necrotic actions of the venom of the wolf spider, Lycosa godeffroyi, on mouse skin. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. C, COMPARATIVE PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY 1990; 95:319-25. [PMID: 1977558 DOI: 10.1016/0742-8413(90)90125-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
1. The venom of the wolf spider, Lycosa godeffroyi, caused cutaneous necrosis when injected into mice. 2. A strong inflammatory response and total loss of epidermal cellularity were features of this in vivo necrosis. 3. Mouse skin envenomated while in tissue culture showed epidermal detachment and reduced cellular adhesion. 4. Triprolidine and methysergide, used together, indomethacin, heparin and human and mouse sera all failed to inhibit the necrosis significantly. 5. The venom caused moderate haemolysis, complement consumption and inhibition of clotting, these apparently not being the main reasons for the necrosis. 6. Neither Atrax infensus venom nor hyaluronidase caused similar epithelial damage.
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Binder LS. Acute arthropod envenomation. Incidence, clinical features and management. MEDICAL TOXICOLOGY AND ADVERSE DRUG EXPERIENCE 1989; 4:163-73. [PMID: 2664428 DOI: 10.1007/bf03259994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) envenomation is found throughout both the temperate and tropical latitudes, and is one of the leading causes of death from arthropod envenomations worldwide. The venom is highly neurotoxic, affecting the presynaptic motor endplate to allow massive noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and acetylcholine release into synapses causing excessive stimulation and fatigue of the motor end plate and muscle. Clinically, patients develop a bite site lesion and pain, abdominal pain and tenderness, and lower extremity pain and weakness within minutes to hours of envenomation. Symptoms progress over several hours, then subside over 2 to 3 days. The recommended treatment of 'common' envenomation is calcium gluconate 10% intravenously, titrated to relief of symptoms; antivenin, although effective, may cause hypersensitivity and serum sickness reactions, and should be restricted to life-threatening envenomations only. Brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) envenomations are seen in the Americas and in Europe, and are endemic to the south and central United States. The venom contains at least 8 enzymes, consisting of various lysins (facilitating venom spread) and sphingomyelinase D, which causes cell membrane injury and lysis, thrombosis, local ischaemia, and chemotaxis. Local envenomations begin as pain and itching that progresses to vesiculation with violaceous necrosis and surrounding erythema, and ultimately ulcer formation. Systemic envenomations may be life threatening, and present with fever, constitutional symptoms, petechial eruptions, thrombocytopenia, and haemolysis with haemoglobinuric renal failure. Treatment of local envenomations is conservative (local wound care, cryotherapy, elevation, tetanus prophylaxis, and close follow-up); systemic envenomation requires supportive care and treatment of arising complications, corticosteroids to stabilise red blood cell membranes, and support of renal function. Dapsone 100mg daily has emerged as a promising therapeutic agent in both animal studies and clinical trials. Over 650 species of scorpions are known to cause envenomation (mostly in children under 10 years); they are endemic mostly in arid and tropical areas. Different venoms and clinical presentations are seen across the different species. Most commonly, an inflammatory local reaction occurs with envenomation, which is treated with wound debridement and cleaning, tetanus prophylaxis, and antihistamines. Occasionally the venom is allergenic, and the resultant allergic reaction is treated in a standard fashion.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Binder
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Texas Tech University Regional Academic Health Center, El Paso
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de Rezende NA, Amaral CF, de Oliveira JS. [Reversible unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis associated with systemic Loxosceles poisoning]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1986; 28:437-41. [PMID: 3602831 DOI: 10.1590/s0036-46651986000600010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Relata-se o caso de um paciente vítima de envenenamento loxoscélico associado a paralisia diafragmática direita reversível. O diagnóstico de envenenamento loxoscélico baseou-se nas informações prestadas pelo paciente de que havia encontrado uma aranha marrom em sua cama no dia seguinte à picada e no quadro clínico típico deste tipo de envenenamento: lesão cutânea necrótica acompanhada de erupção escarlatiniforme e comprometimento sistêmico sob a forma de insuficiência renal aguda, distúrbios da coagulação sangüínea, hemólise intravascular e hemoglobinúria. Estas alterações regrediram completamente com o tratamento conservador. O diagnóstico da paralisia diafragmática baseou-se na elevação da hemicúpula diafragmática direita na radiografia de tórax em inspiração forçada e em sua completa imobilidade no exame radioscópico. A paralisia frênica não existia na radiografia realizada previamente ao acidente e desapareceu completamente trinta dias após o mesmo, o que permitiu associá-la à toxocidade do veneno loxoscélico ou a outras manifestações sistêmicas produzidas por ele.
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Abstract
A purified toxic protein from Loxosceles reclusa venom was assayed for its in vitro effects on the human immunological and blood clotting systems. The toxin caused inhibition of neutrophil chemotaxis, depletion of serum hemolytic complement, prolongation of the activated partial thromboplastin time and depletion of clotting factors XII, XI, IX and VIII by an average of 44% in human plasma. The prothrombin time of human plasma was also prolonged by 1.5-2.0 sec. No effect of the purified toxin was observed on microbicidal ability of neutrophils, the release of enzymes from neutrophils or the adherence of neutrophils to glass beads.
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Rees RS, O'Leary JP, King LE. The pathogenesis of systemic loxoscelism following brown recluse spider bites. J Surg Res 1983; 35:1-10. [PMID: 6865387 DOI: 10.1016/0022-4804(83)90119-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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