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Bittenbinder MA, van Thiel J, Cardoso FC, Casewell NR, Gutiérrez JM, Kool J, Vonk FJ. Tissue damaging toxins in snake venoms: mechanisms of action, pathophysiology and treatment strategies. Commun Biol 2024; 7:358. [PMID: 38519650 PMCID: PMC10960010 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06019-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is an important public health issue responsible for mortality and severe morbidity. Where mortality is mainly caused by venom toxins that induce cardiovascular disturbances, neurotoxicity, and acute kidney injury, morbidity is caused by toxins that directly or indirectly destroy cells and degrade the extracellular matrix. These are referred to as 'tissue-damaging toxins' and have previously been classified in various ways, most of which are based on the tissues being affected (e.g., cardiotoxins, myotoxins). This categorisation, however, is primarily phenomenological and not mechanistic. In this review, we propose an alternative way of classifying cytotoxins based on their mechanistic effects rather than using a description that is organ- or tissue-based. The mechanisms of toxin-induced tissue damage and their clinical implications are discussed. This review contributes to our understanding of fundamental biological processes associated with snakebite envenoming, which may pave the way for a knowledge-based search for novel therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mátyás A Bittenbinder
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, The Netherlands
- AIMMS, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jory van Thiel
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Fernanda C Cardoso
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Centre for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - José-María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501, Costa Rica.
| | - Jeroen Kool
- AIMMS, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, The Netherlands
- AIMMS, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Lomonte B. Lys49 myotoxins, secreted phospholipase A 2-like proteins of viperid venoms: A comprehensive review. Toxicon 2023; 224:107024. [PMID: 36632869 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Muscle necrosis is a potential clinical complication of snakebite envenomings, which in severe cases can lead to functional or physical sequelae such as disability or amputation. Snake venom proteins with the ability to directly damage skeletal muscle fibers are collectively referred to as myotoxins, and include three main types: cytolysins of the "three-finger toxin" protein family expressed in many elapid venoms, the so-called "small" myotoxins found in a number of rattlesnake venoms, and the widespread secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) molecules. Among the latter, protein variants that conserve the sPLA2 structure, but lack such enzymatic activity, have been increasingly found in the venoms of many viperid species. Intriguingly, these sPLA2-like proteins are able to induce muscle necrosis by a mechanism independent of phospholipid hydrolysis. They are commonly referred to as "Lys49 myotoxins" since they most often present, among other substitutions, the replacement of the otherwise invariant residue Asp49 of sPLA2s by Lys. This work comprehensively reviews the historical developments and current knowledge towards deciphering the mechanism of action of Lys49 sPLA2-like myotoxins, and points out main gaps to be filled for a better understanding of these multifaceted snake venom proteins, to hopefully lead to improved treatments for snakebites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501, Costa Rica.
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3
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Mora-Obando D, Lomonte B, Pla D, Guerrero-Vargas JA, Ayerbe-González S, Gutiérrez JM, Sasa M, Calvete JJ. Half a century of research on Bothrops asper venom variation: Biological and biomedical implications. Toxicon 2022; 221:106983. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.106983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Pucca MB, Franco MVS, Medeiros JM, Oliveira IS, Ahmadi S, Cerni FA, Zottich U, Bassoli BK, Monteiro WM, Laustsen AH. Chronic kidney failure following lancehead bite envenoming: a clinical report from the Amazon region. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2020; 26:e20200083. [PMID: 33424950 PMCID: PMC7754649 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2020-0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Snakebite envenoming can be a life-threatening condition, for which emergency
care is essential. The Bothrops (lancehead) genus is
responsible for most snakebite-related deaths and permanent loss of function
in human victims in Latin America. Bothrops spp. venom is a
complex mixture of different proteins that are known to cause local
necrosis, coagulopathy, and acute kidney injury. However, the long-term
effects of these viper envenomings have remained largely understudied. Case presentation: Here, we present a case report of a 46-years old female patient from Las
Claritas, Venezuela, who was envenomed by a snake from the
Bothrops genus. The patient was followed for a 10-year
period, during which she presented oliguric renal failure, culminating in
kidney failure 60 months after the envenoming. Conclusion: In Latin America, especially in Brazil, where there is a high prevalence of
Bothrops envenoming, it may be relevant to establish
long-term outpatient programs. This would reduce late adverse events, such
as chronic kidney disease, and optimize public financial resources by
avoiding hemodialysis and consequently kidney transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela B Pucca
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, RR, Brazil
| | | | | | - Isadora S Oliveira
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Felipe A Cerni
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Umberto Zottich
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, RR, Brazil
| | - Bruna K Bassoli
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, RR, Brazil
| | - Wuelton M Monteiro
- School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, AM, Brazil.,Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, AM, Brazil
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Salazar E, Rodriguez-Acosta A, Lucena S, Gonzalez R, McLarty MC, Sanchez O, Suntravat M, Garcia E, Finol HJ, Giron ME, Fernandez I, Deba F, Bessac BF, Sánchez EE. Biological activities of a new crotamine-like peptide from Crotalus oreganus helleri on C2C12 and CHO cell lines, and ultrastructural changes on motor endplate and striated muscle. Toxicon 2020; 188:95-107. [PMID: 33065200 PMCID: PMC7720416 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Crotamine and crotamine-like peptides are non-enzymatic polypeptides, belonging to the family of myotoxins, which are found in high concentration in the venom of the Crotalus genus. Helleramine was isolated and purified from the venom of the Southern Pacific rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus helleri. This peptide had a similar, but unique, identity to crotamine and crotamine-like proteins isolated from other rattlesnakes species. The variability of crotamine-like protein amino acid sequences may allow different toxic effects on biological targets or optimize the action against the same target of different prey. Helleramine was capable of increasing intracellular Ca2+ in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell line. It inhibited cell migration as well as cell viability (IC50 = 11.44 μM) of C2C12, immortalized skeletal myoblasts, in a concentration dependent manner, and promoted early apoptosis and cell death under our experimental conditions. Skeletal muscle harvested from mice 24 h after helleramine injection showed contracted myofibrils and profound vacuolization that enlarged the subsarcolemmal space, along with loss of plasmatic and basal membrane integrity. The effects of helleramine provide further insights and evidence of myotoxic activities of crotamine-like peptides and their possible role in crotalid envenomings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emelyn Salazar
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Alexis Rodriguez-Acosta
- Laboratorio de Inmunoquímica y Ultraestructura, Instituto Anatómico, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Sara Lucena
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Roschman Gonzalez
- Centro de Microscopía Electrónica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Morgan C McLarty
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Oscar Sanchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Montamas Suntravat
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Estefanie Garcia
- Centro de Microscopía Electrónica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Hector J Finol
- Centro de Microscopía Electrónica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Maria E Giron
- Laboratorio de Inmunoquímica y Ultraestructura, Instituto Anatómico, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Irma Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Inmunoquímica y Ultraestructura, Instituto Anatómico, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Farah Deba
- Texas A&M Rangel College of Pharmacy, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Bret F Bessac
- Texas A&M Rangel College of Pharmacy, Kingsville, TX, USA; Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University HSC, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA; Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA.
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6
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Cholich LA, Pistán ME, Torres AM, Ortega HH, Gardner DR, Bustillo S. Cytotoxic activity induced by the alkaloid extract from Ipomoea carnea on primary murine mixed glial cultures. Toxicon 2020; 188:134-141. [PMID: 33091389 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The prolonged consumption of Ipomoea carnea produces neurologic symptoms in animals and a typical histological lesion, cytoplasmic vacuolization, especially in neurons. The toxic principles of I. carnea are the alkaloids swainsonine and calystegines B1, B2, B3 and C1. In this study, primary brain cultures from newborn mouse containing mixed glial cells were utilized. These cells were exposed to Ipomoea extracts containing between 0 and 250 μM swainsonine for 48 h. Morphological changes were investigated through Phase Contrast microscopy and Rosenfeld's staining. The extract induced cytoplasmic vacuolization in astrocytes and microglia in a dose dependent manner, being more evident when cultures were exposed to 250 μM of swainsonine. In addition, acridine orange staining evidenced an increase in the number of lysosomes in both microglia and astrocytes cells. Consistent with this, scanning electron microscopy also showed that both types of cells presented morphological characteristics of cell activation. Ultrastructurally, cells showed vacuoles filled with amorphous material and surrounded by a single membrane and also multilayer membranes. Taken together, these findings suggest that swainsonine along with calystegines, are probably responsible for the activation of glial cells due to a possible lysosomal dysfunction and therefore intracellular storage. Our results demonstrate that this in vitro glial cell model is a very good alternative to in vivo studies that require several weeks of animal intoxication to observe similar neurotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Andrea Cholich
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, National University of the Northeast, Corrientes, Argentina; The National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina.
| | - María Elena Pistán
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, National University of the Northeast, Corrientes, Argentina; The National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Ana María Torres
- Natural Products Laboratory, IQUIBA-NEA CONICET, National University of the Northeast, Corrientes, Argentina
| | - Hugo Héctor Ortega
- Institute of Veterinary Sciences of Litoral (ICIVET), National University of Litoral (UNL), Esperanza, Santa Fe, Argentina; The National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Dale R Gardner
- USDA-ARS Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Soledad Bustillo
- Biological and Molecular Investigations Group (GIBYM), IQUIBA-NEA CONICET, National University of the Northeast, Corrientes, Argentina
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7
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Ferraz CR, Arrahman A, Xie C, Casewell NR, Lewis RJ, Kool J, Cardoso FC. Multifunctional Toxins in Snake Venoms and Therapeutic Implications: From Pain to Hemorrhage and Necrosis. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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Massimino ML, Simonato M, Spolaore B, Franchin C, Arrigoni G, Marin O, Monturiol-Gross L, Fernández J, Lomonte B, Tonello F. Cell surface nucleolin interacts with and internalizes Bothrops asper Lys49 phospholipase A 2 and mediates its toxic activity. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10619. [PMID: 30006575 PMCID: PMC6045611 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28846-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 are a major component of snake venoms. Some of them cause severe muscle necrosis through an unknown mechanism. Phospholipid hydrolysis is a possible explanation of their toxic action, but catalytic and toxic properties of PLA2s are not directly connected. In addition, viperid venoms contain PLA2-like proteins, which are very toxic even if they lack catalytic activity due to a critical mutation in position 49. In this work, the PLA2-like Bothrops asper myotoxin-II, conjugated with the fluorophore TAMRA, was found to be internalized in mouse myotubes, and in RAW264.7 cells. Through experiments of protein fishing and mass spectrometry analysis, using biotinylated Mt-II as bait, we found fifteen proteins interacting with the toxin and among them nucleolin, a nucleolar protein present also on cell surface. By means of confocal microscopy, Mt-II and nucleolin were shown to colocalise, at 4 °C, on cell membrane where they form Congo-red sensitive assemblies, while at 37 °C, 20 minutes after the intoxication, they colocalise in intracellular spots going from plasmatic membrane to paranuclear and nuclear area. Finally, nucleolin antagonists were found to inhibit the Mt-II internalization and toxic activity and were used to identify the nucleolin regions involved in the interaction with the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Morena Simonato
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, CNR, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Barbara Spolaore
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università di Padova, Via F. Marzolo, 5, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Cinzia Franchin
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
- Centro di Proteomica, Università di Padova e Azienda Ospedaliera di Padova, Via G. Orus 2/B, 35129, Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Arrigoni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
- Centro di Proteomica, Università di Padova e Azienda Ospedaliera di Padova, Via G. Orus 2/B, 35129, Padova, Italy
| | - Oriano Marin
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Laura Monturiol-Gross
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Julián Fernández
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Fiorella Tonello
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, CNR, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy.
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Zuliani JP, Gutiérrez JM, Teixeira C. Signaling pathways involved in zymosan phagocytosis induced by two secreted phospholipases A2 isolated from Bothrops asper snake venom in macrophages. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 113:575-582. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.02.158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2017] [Revised: 02/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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10
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Casais-E-Silva LL, Teixeira CFP, Lebrun I, Lomonte B, Alape-Girón A, Gutiérrez JM. Lemnitoxin, the major component of Micrurus lemniscatus coral snake venom, is a myotoxic and pro-inflammatory phospholipase A2. Toxicol Lett 2016; 257:60-71. [PMID: 27282409 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 05/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The venom of Micrurus lemniscatus, a coral snake of wide geographical distribution in South America, was fractionated by reverse-phase HPLC and the fractions screened for phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity. The major component of the venom, a PLA2, here referred to as 'Lemnitoxin', was isolated and characterized biochemically and toxicologically. It induces myotoxicity upon intramuscular or intravenous injection into mice. The amino acid residues Arg15, Ala100, Asn108, and a hydrophobic residue at position 109, which are characteristic of myotoxic class I phospholipases A2, are present in Lemnitoxin. This PLA2 is antigenically related to M. nigrocinctus nigroxin, Notechis scutatus notexin, Pseudechis australis mulgotoxin, and Pseudonaja textilis textilotoxin, as demonstrated with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. Lemnitoxin is highly selective in its targeting of cells, being cytotoxic for differentiated myotubes in vitro and muscle fibers in vivo, but not for undifferentiated myoblasts or endothelial cells. Lemnitoxin is not lethal after intravenous injection at doses up to 2μg/g in mice, evidencing its lack of significant neurotoxicity. Lemnitoxin displays anticoagulant effect on human plasma and proinflammatory activity also, as it induces paw edema and mast cell degranulation. Thus, the results of this work demonstrate that Lemnitoxin is a potent myotoxic and proinflammatory class I PLA2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana L Casais-E-Silva
- Laboratory of Neuroimmunoendocrinology and Toxinology, Department of Bioregulation, Institute of Health Sciences (ICS), Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
| | | | - Ivo Lebrun
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Alberto Alape-Girón
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Bustillo S, García-Denegri ME, Gay C, Van de Velde AC, Acosta O, Angulo Y, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Leiva L. Phospholipase A(2) enhances the endothelial cell detachment effect of a snake venom metalloproteinase in the absence of catalysis. Chem Biol Interact 2015; 240:30-6. [PMID: 26279213 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2015.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Microvessel disruption leading to hemorrhage stands among the most dangerous consequences of envenomings by snakes of the family Viperidae. A PIII metalloproteinase (SVMP), balteragin, purified from the venom of the snake Bothrops alternatus, displays a potent hemorrhagic effect, and a moderate myotoxicity in vivo. Previous studies described the ability of this SVMP to induce the detachment of C2C12 myoblasts in culture, without causing cytolysis. Surprisingly, a purified acidic phospholipase A2 (PLA2) from the same venom was found to increase this detaching activity of the SVMP on myoblasts. Since endothelial cells are a natural target of SVMPs in vivo, the possibility that this synergistic effect is also observed on this cell type was explored in the present work. In addition, a first approach of the mechanism of action of this effect was studied. Results clearly confirm that the acidic PLA2, despite lacking toxicity towards endothelial cells, significantly enhances the detaching effect of the SVMP even at a concentration as low as 1 μg/mL. Inhibition of enzymatic activity of the PLA2 by chemical modification with p-bromophenacyl bromide did not affect the synergistic activity, suggesting that this effect is not dependent on phospholipase enzymatic activity and may instead be the consequence of an interaction of the PLA2 with endothelial cell plasma membrane. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a synergistic action of a non toxic PLA2 in enhancing the detachment of endothelial cells induced by a metalloproteinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soledad Bustillo
- Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), Corrientes, Argentina.
| | | | - Carolina Gay
- Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), Corrientes, Argentina
| | | | - Ofelia Acosta
- Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), Corrientes, Argentina
| | - Yamileth Angulo
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Laura Leiva
- Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), Corrientes, Argentina
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da Silva ACR, Ferreira LG, Duarte MER, Noseda MD, Sanchez EF, Fuly AL. Sulfated Galactan from Palisada flagellifera Inhibits Toxic Effects of Lachesis muta Snake Venom. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:3761-75. [PMID: 26110897 PMCID: PMC4483655 DOI: 10.3390/md13063761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In Brazil, snakebites are a public health problem and accidents caused by Lachesis muta have the highest mortality index. Envenomation by L. muta is characterized by systemic (hypotension, bleeding and renal failure) and local effects (necrosis, pain and edema). The treatment to reverse the evolution of all the toxic effects is performed by injection of antivenom. However, such therapy does not effectively neutralize tissue damage or any other local effect, since in most cases victims delay seeking appropriate medical care. In this way, alternative therapies are in demand, and molecules from natural sources have been exhaustively tested. In this paper, we analyzed the inhibitory effect of a sulfated galactan obtained from the red seaweed Palisada flagellifera against some toxic activities of L. muta venom. Incubation of sulfated galactan with venom resulted in inhibition of hemolysis, coagulation, proteolysis, edema and hemorrhage. Neutralization of hemorrhage was also observed when the galactan was administered after or before the venom injection; thus mimicking a real in vivo situation. Moreover, the galactan blocked the edema caused by a phospholipase A2 isolated from the same venom. Therefore, the galactan from P. flagellifera may represent a promising tool to treat envenomation by L. muta as a coadjuvant for the conventional antivenom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cláudia Rodrigues da Silva
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Federal Fluminense University, CEP 24020-141 Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Luciana Garcia Ferreira
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81531-980 Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Maria Eugênia Rabello Duarte
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81531-980 Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Miguel Daniel Noseda
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, CEP 81531-980 Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Eladio Flores Sanchez
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Proteins from Animal Venoms, Research and Development Center, Ezequiel Dias Foundation, CEP 30510-010 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - André Lopes Fuly
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Federal Fluminense University, CEP 24020-141 Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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Marques PP, Esteves A, Lancellotti M, Ponce-Soto LA, Marangoni S. Novel acidic phospholipase A 2 from Porthidium hyoprora causes inflammation with mast cell rich infiltrate. Biochem Biophys Rep 2015; 1:78-84. [PMID: 29124136 PMCID: PMC5668520 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are a group of enzymes that hydrolyze phospholipids at the sn-2 position, being present in all nature. In venomous animals, these proteins assume a special role, being able to exert diverse pharmacological effects. In this work, authors identified a new isoform of PLA2 in the venom of Porthidium hyoprora, which was isolated through sequential chromatographic steps and named PhTX-III. The enzyme was characterized biochemically and structurally. Structural studies using mass spectrometry confirmed an acidic secretory PLA2, family IIA, with molecular mass of 13,620.9 Da and identification of 86% of its primary sequence. PhTX-III did not exhibit myotoxic, anticoagulant or antibacterial effects, often present in this class of enzymes. Although, it was capable of initiate inflammatory response, with local edema and release of cytokines IL-1α, IL-6 and TNF-α, probably due to mast cell degranulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petrus Pires Marques
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Esteves
- Department of Anatomy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICB), Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), Alfenas, MG, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Lancellotti
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis Alberto Ponce-Soto
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Sergio Marangoni
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Fernandes CA, Borges RJ, Lomonte B, Fontes MR. A structure-based proposal for a comprehensive myotoxic mechanism of phospholipase A2-like proteins from viperid snake venoms. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2014; 1844:2265-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Revised: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Intravascular hemolysis induced by the venom of the Eastern coral snake, Micrurus fulvius, in a mouse model: Identification of directly hemolytic phospholipases A2. Toxicon 2014; 90:26-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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16
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Lomonte B, Pla D, Sasa M, Tsai WC, Solórzano A, Ureña-Díaz JM, Fernández-Montes ML, Mora-Obando D, Sanz L, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ. Two color morphs of the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platura, from different locations of Costa Rica: snake venomics, toxicity, and neutralization by antivenom. J Proteomics 2014; 103:137-52. [PMID: 24704853 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platura, is the most broadly distributed snake species. Despite being endowed with a highly lethal venom, a proteomic analysis of its toxin composition was unavailable. The venoms of specimens collected in Golfo de Papagayo and Golfo Dulce (Costa Rica), where two distinctive color morphs occur, were chromatographically compared. The latter inhabits a fjord-like gulf where the transit of oceanic sea snakes into and from the basin is restricted, thus possibly affecting gene flow. RP-HPLC evidenced a conserved venom protein profile in both populations, despite their divergent color phenotypes. Following a trend observed in other sea snakes, P. platura venom is relatively simple, being composed of proteins of the three-finger toxin (3FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP), 5'-nucleotidase, and metalloproteinase families. The first three groups represent 49.9%, 32.9%, and 9.1% of total venom protein, respectively. The most abundant component (~26%) is pelamitoxin (P62388), a short-chain 3FTx, followed by a major basic PLA2 (~20%) and a group of three isoforms of CRISPs (~9%). Whereas isolated pelamitoxin was highly lethal to mice, neither the PLA2 nor the CRISP fraction caused death. However, the PLA2 rapidly increased plasma creatine kinase activity after intramuscular injection, indicating its myotoxic action. Differing from myotoxic PLA2s of viperids, this PLA2 was not cytolytic to murine myogenic cells in vitro, suggesting possible differences in its mechanism of action. The median lethal dose (LD50) estimates for P. platura crude venom in mice and in three species of fishes did not differ significantly. The sea snake antivenom manufactured by CSL Ltd. (Australia), which uses Enhydrina schistosa as immunogen, cross-recognized the three major components of P. platura venom and, accordingly, neutralized the lethal activity of crude venom and pelamitoxin, therefore being of potential usefulness in the treatment of envenomations by this species. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Integrative analyses of animal venoms that combine the power of proteomics (venomics) with the characterization of their functional and immunological properties are significantly expanding knowledge on these remarkable bioweapons, both from a basic and a medical perspective. Costa Rica harbors a unique population of the yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platura, that is restricted to a fjord-like gulf (Golfo Dulce). This population differs markedly from oceanic populations found elsewhere along the Pacific coast of this country, by presenting a patternless bright yellow coloration, instead of the typical bicolored or tricolored pattern of this species. It has been suggested that the dominance of this yellow-morph in Golfo Dulce might reflect gene flow restrictions, caused by the oceanographic conditions at this location. The present study demonstrates that the remarkable phenotypic variation between the two color morphs inhabiting Golfo Dulce and Golfo de Papagayo, respectively, is not associated with differences in the expression of venom components, as shown by their conserved RP-HPLC profiles. Proteomic analysis revealed the relatively simple toxin composition of P. platura venom, which contains three predominant types of proteins: three-finger toxins (protein abundance: 49.9%), phospholipases A2 (32.9%), and cysteine-rich secretory proteins (9.1%), together with few minor components. Further, the involvement of these most abundant proteins in the toxic effects of the venom, and their cross-recognition and neutralization by a sea snake antivenom produced against the venom of Enhydrina schistosa, were analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica.
| | - Davinia Pla
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Wan-Chih Tsai
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | | | - Juan Manuel Ureña-Díaz
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | | | - Diana Mora-Obando
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Libia Sanz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
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Mukherjee AK. A major phospholipase A2 from Daboia russelii russelii venom shows potent anticoagulant action via thrombin inhibition and binding with plasma phospholipids. Biochimie 2014; 99:153-61. [PMID: 24333043 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2013.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This is the first report on antithrombin effects of a phospholipase A2 (RVAPLA2) purified from venom of Daboia russelii russelii. The N-terminal sequence as well as in-gel tryptic digested peptides of RVAPLA2 showed significant homology with PLA2s from Russell's viper venom. RVAPLA2 demonstrated highest specific activity in hydrolyzing phosphatidylcholine (1.8 × 10(6) U/mg) with Km and Vmax values of 0.61 mM and 132.3 μmol/min, respectively. RVAPLA2 exerted dose-dependent catalytic and strong anticoagulant activities; however, studies indicated dissociation of its catalytic and anticoagulant sites. The anticoagulant action of RVAPLA2 was partially contributed by catalytic hydrolysis of plasma phospholipids. RVAPLA2 showed strong anticoagulant effect via thrombin inhibition with a Ki value of 380 nM as well as by binding to pro-coagulant phospholipids of plasma. In ex-vivo conditions, RVAPLA2 (1.0 μM) was non-hemolytic and non-cytotoxic to mammalian cells. It did not inhibit the collagen-induced aggregation of platelets. RVAPLA2 at a dose of 5 mg/kg was not lethal to mice after 48 h of injection. It demonstrated in vivo anticoagulant activity possibly due to targeting thrombin and binding with plasma phospholipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashis K Mukherjee
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784 028, Assam, India; School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA.
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Nadur-Andrade N, Dale CS, Santos ASD, Soares AM, de Lima CJ, Zamuner SR. Photobiostimulation reduces edema formation induced in mice by Lys-49 phospholipases A2 isolated from Bothrops moojeni venom. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2014; 13:1561-7. [DOI: 10.1039/c4pp00111g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The prominent local myotoxic effects induced by Bothrops snake venom are due, in part, to myotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Camila Squarzone Dale
- Department of Anatomy
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences
- University of São Paulo
- São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Andreimar M. Soares
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation
- Federal University of Rondonia
- 76812-245 Porto Velho, Brazil
| | - Carlos J. de Lima
- Laboratory of Biomedical Instrumentation
- Camilo Castelo Branco University
- São Jose dos Campos, Brazil
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Fernández J, Caccin P, Koster G, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Montecucco C, Postle AD. Muscle phospholipid hydrolysis byBothrops asperAsp49 and Lys49 phospholipase A2myotoxins - distinct mechanisms of action. FEBS J 2013; 280:3878-86. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.12386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julián Fernández
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and National Research Council Institute of Neuroscience; University of Padova; Italy
| | - Paola Caccin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and National Research Council Institute of Neuroscience; University of Padova; Italy
| | - Grielof Koster
- National Institute for Health Research Respiratory Medicine Biomedical Research Unit; University Hospitals Southampton; UK
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado; Facultad de Microbiología; Universidad de Costa Rica; Costa Rica
| | - José M. Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado; Facultad de Microbiología; Universidad de Costa Rica; Costa Rica
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and National Research Council Institute of Neuroscience; University of Padova; Italy
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Differential mode of attack on membrane phospholipids by an acidic phospholipase A2 (RVVA-PLA2-I) from Daboia russelli venom. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2012; 1818:3149-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2012.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2012] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Saravia-Otten P, Robledo B, Escalante T, Bonilla L, Rucavado A, Lomonte B, Hernández R, Flock JI, Gutiérrez JM, Gastaldello S. Homogenates of skeletal muscle injected with snake venom inhibit myogenic differentiation in cell culture. Muscle Nerve 2012; 47:202-12. [PMID: 23169301 DOI: 10.1002/mus.23489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Viperid snakebite envenomings are characterized by muscle necrosis and a deficient regenerative response. METHODS Homogenates from gastrocnemius muscles of mice injected with the venom of the snake Bothrops asper or with 2 tissue-damaging toxins were added to cultures of C2C12 myogenic cells. Myoblasts proliferation and fusion were assessed. Venom was detected by immunoassay in mouse muscle during the first week after injection. RESULTS Homogenates from venom-injected muscle induced a drop in the number of proliferating myoblasts and a complete elimination of myotube formation. The inhibitory effect induced by homogenates from venom-injected mice was abrogated by preincubation of the homogenate with antivenom antibodies but not with control antibodies. This finding provides evidence that the effect is due to the action of venom in the tissue. CONCLUSIONS Our observations suggest that traces of venom in muscle tissue might inhibit myotube formation and preclude a successful regenerative response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Saravia-Otten
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacia, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Guatemala.
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Lomonte B, Rangel J. Snake venom Lys49 myotoxins: From phospholipases A2 to non-enzymatic membrane disruptors. Toxicon 2012; 60:520-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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A Lys49-PLA2 myotoxin of Bothrops asper triggers a rapid death of macrophages that involves autocrine purinergic receptor signaling. Cell Death Dis 2012; 3:e343. [PMID: 22764102 PMCID: PMC3406575 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2012.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Lys49-PLA(2) myotoxins, an important component of various viperid snake venoms, are a class of PLA(2)-homolog proteins deprived of catalytic activity. Similar to enzymatically active PLA(2) (Asp49) and to other classes of myotoxins, they cause severe myonecrosis. Moreover, these toxins are used as tools to study skeletal muscle repair and regeneration, a process that can be very limited after snakebites. In this work, the cytotoxic effect of different myotoxins, Bothrops asper Lys49 and Asp49-PLA(2), Notechis scutatus notexin and Naja mossambica cardiotoxin, was evaluated on macrophages, cells that have a key role in muscle regeneration. Only the Lys49-myotoxin was found to trigger a rapid asynchronous death of mouse peritoneal macrophages and macrophagic cell lines through a process that involves ATP release, ATP-induced ATP release and that is inhibited by various purinergic receptor antagonists. ATP leakage is induced also at sublytical doses of the Lys49-myotoxin, it involves Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores, and is reduced by inhibitors of VSOR and the maxi-anion channel. The toxin-induced cell death is different from that caused by high concentration of ATP and appears to be linked to localized purinergic signaling. Based on present findings, a mechanism of cell death is proposed that can be extended to other cytolytic proteins and peptides.
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Bustillo S, Gay CC, García Denegri ME, Ponce-Soto LA, Bal de Kier Joffé E, Acosta O, Leiva LC. Synergism between baltergin metalloproteinase and Ba SPII RP4 PLA2 from Bothrops alternatus venom on skeletal muscle (C2C12) cells. Toxicon 2012; 59:338-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Comparative study of the cytolytic activity of snake venoms from African spitting cobras (Naja spp., Elapidae) and its neutralization by a polyspecific antivenom. Toxicon 2011; 58:558-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Antivenoms for the treatment of snakebite envenomings: The road ahead. Biologicals 2011; 39:129-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2011.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Rangel J, Quesada O, Gutiérrez JM, Angulo Y, Lomonte B. Membrane cholesterol modulates the cytolytic mechanism of myotoxin II, a Lys49 phospholipase A2 homologue from the venom of Bothrops asper. Cell Biochem Funct 2011; 29:365-70. [PMID: 21506137 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.1758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Revised: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Lys49 phospholipase A2 (PLA2) homologues present in crotalid snake venoms lack enzymatic activity, yet they induce skeletal muscle necrosis by a membrane permeabilizing mechanism whose details are only partially understood. The present study evaluated the effect of altering the membrane cholesterol content on the cytolytic activity of myotoxin II, a Lys49 PLA2 isolated from the venom of Bothrops asper, using the myogenic cell line C2C12 as a model target. Cell membrane cholesterol depletion by methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) treatment enhanced the cytolytic action of myotoxin II, as well as of its bioactive C-terminal synthetic peptide p(115-129) . Conversely, cell membrane cholesterol enrichment by preformed cholesterol-MβCD complexes reduced the cytolytic effect of myotoxin II. The toxic actions of myotoxin I, a catalytically active PLA2 from the same venom, as well as of the cytolytic peptide melittin from bee venom, also increased in cholesterol-depleted cells. Although physical and functional changes resulting from variations in membrane cholesterol are complex, these findings suggest that membrane fluidity could be a relevant parameter to explain the observed modulation of the cytolytic mechanism of myotoxin II, possibly influencing bilayer penetration. In concordance, the cytolytic effect of myotoxin II decreased in direct proportion to lower temperature, a physical factor that affects membrane fluidity. In conclusion, physicochemical properties that depend on membrane cholesterol content significantly influence the cytolytic mechanism of myotoxin II, reinforcing the concept that the primary site of action of Lys49 PLA2 myotoxins is the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Rangel
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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28
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Ponce-Soto LA, Martins-de-Souza D, Marangoni S. Neurotoxic, Myotoxic and Cytolytic Activities of the New Basic PLA2 Isoforms BmjeTX-I and BmjeTX-II Isolated from the Bothrops marajoensis (Marajó Lancehead) Snake Venom. Protein J 2010; 29:103-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s10930-010-9229-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Understanding the in vitro neuromuscular activity of snake venom Lys49 phospholipase A2 homologues. Toxicon 2010; 55:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2009] [Revised: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 10/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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30
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Gutiérrez JM, Rucavado A, Escalante T, Lomonte B, Angulo Y, Fox JW. Tissue pathology induced by snake venoms: How to understand a complex pattern of alterations from a systems biology perspective? Toxicon 2010; 55:166-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/14/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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31
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Experimental pathology of local tissue damage induced by Bothrops asper snake venom. Toxicon 2009; 54:958-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2008] [Revised: 01/22/2009] [Accepted: 01/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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32
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Angulo Y, Lomonte B. Biochemistry and toxicology of toxins purified from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper. Toxicon 2009; 54:949-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 12/09/2008] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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33
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Pereañez JA, Núñez V, Huancahuire-Vega S, Marangoni S, Ponce-Soto LA. Biochemical and biological characterization of a PLA2 from crotoxin complex of Crotalus durissus cumanensis. Toxicon 2009; 53:534-42. [PMID: 19673100 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A new PLA2 (Cdcum6) from crotoxin complex of Colombian Crotalus durissus cumanensis rattlesnake was purified using molecular exclusion chromatography and RP-HPLC. The molecular mass of Cdcum6 was determined by SDS-PAGE approximately 14 KDa and confirmed by MALDI-TOF (14321.98 Da). The enzyme showed Km 6.0 mM, Vmax 3.44 nmol/min, optimum pH was 8.0 and temperature was between 30 and 45 degrees C, and it had a strict requirement of Ca2+ for its activity. The N-terminal sequence of PLA2 was SLVQF EKMIK EVAGK NGVPWY. Comparison of amino acid sequence data with other PLA2 from South American Crotalus durissus rattlesnakes showed that Cdcum6 shares the highest sequence identity with Cdr13 an isoform PLA2 from Crotalus durissus ruruima, nevertheless, Cdcum6 showed high content of basic and hydrophobic amino acids. In mice, Cdcum6 presented higher LD50 than crotoxin complex from C d. cumanensis. Additionally, Cdcum6 induced a conspicuous local myotoxic effect and moderate footpad edema; in vitro, it was antigoagulant in doses as low as 0.5 microg/l ml, and it was not cytotoxic on myoblast but Cdcum6 was able to lyse myotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Andrés Pereañez
- Programa Ofidismo/Escorpionismo, Universidad de Antioquia, Street 62 No. 52-59, A.A 1226, Medellín, Colombia.
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Mora J, Mora R, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM. Effects of Bothrops asper snake venom on lymphatic vessels: insights into a hidden aspect of envenomation. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008; 2:e318. [PMID: 18923712 PMCID: PMC2563035 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2008] [Accepted: 09/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Envenomations by the snake Bothrops asper represent a serious medical problem in Central America and parts of South America. These envenomations concur with drastic local tissue pathology, including a prominent edema. Since lymph flow plays a role in the maintenance of tissue fluid balance, the effect of B. asper venom on collecting lymphatic vessels was studied. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS B. asper venom was applied to mouse mesentery, and the effects were studied using an intravital microscopy methodology coupled with an image analysis program. B. asper venom induced a dose-dependent contraction of collecting lymphatic vessels, resulting in a reduction of their lumen and in a halting of lymph flow. The effect was reproduced by a myotoxic phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) homologue isolated from this venom, but not by a hemorrhagic metalloproteinase or a coagulant thrombin-like serine proteinase. In agreement with this, treatment of the venom with fucoidan, a myotoxin inhibitor, abrogated the effect, whereas no inhibition was observed after incubation with the peptidomimetic metalloproteinase inhibitor Batimastat. Moreover, fucoidan significantly reduced venom-induced footpad edema. The myotoxic PLA(2) homologue, known to induce skeletal muscle necrosis, was able to induce cytotoxicity in smooth muscle cells in culture and to promote an increment in the permeability to propidium iodide in these cells. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Our observations indicate that B. asper venom affects collecting lymphatic vessels through the action of myotoxic PLA(2)s on the smooth muscle of these vessels, inducing cell contraction and irreversible cell damage. This activity may play an important role in the pathogenesis of the pronounced local edema characteristic of viperid snakebite envenomation, as well as in the systemic biodistribution of the venom, thus representing a potential therapeutical target in these envenomations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Mora
- Departamento de Parasitología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Rodrigo Mora
- Departamento de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- * E-mail:
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Moreira V, Gutiérrez JM, Soares AM, Zamunér SR, Purgatto E, Teixeira CDFP. Secretory phospholipases A2 isolated from Bothrops asper and from Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venoms induce distinct mechanisms for biosynthesis of prostaglandins E2 and D2 and expression of cyclooxygenases. Toxicon 2008; 52:428-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2007] [Revised: 06/10/2008] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Gutiérrez JM, Ponce-Soto LA, Marangoni S, Lomonte B. Systemic and local myotoxicity induced by snake venom group II phospholipases A2: Comparison between crotoxin, crotoxin B and a Lys49 PLA2 homologue. Toxicon 2008; 51:80-92. [PMID: 17915277 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2007] [Revised: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 08/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The patterns of myotoxicity induced in mice by crotoxin, crotoxin B and a Lys49 phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) homologue were compared. Lys49 PLA(2)-induced local myotoxicity is reflected by creatine kinase (CK) loss in injected gastrocnemius muscle, and by a profile of CK increase in plasma characterized by a rapid increment and drop after intramuscular injection, and by a lack of CK increase in plasma after intravenous injection. In contrast, crotoxin and crotoxin B, which induce local and systemic myotoxicity, provoked a more prolonged increment in plasma CK activity upon intramuscular injection, and induced increments in plasma CK after intravenous injection. The three toxins promoted a similar extent of local myotoxicity, assessed by the loss of CK in injected gastrocnemius. A method for the quantitative assessment of the ability of toxins to induce systemic myotoxicity is proposed, based on the estimation of the ratio between the area under the curve in the plasma CK activity (total myotoxicity) to the loss of CK in injected gastrocnemius (local myotoxicity). The highest ratio corresponded to crotoxin, and the lowest corresponded to Lys49 PLA(2), the former being a systemic myotoxin and the latter a local myotoxin. Neutralization by antivenoms also differed between the toxins: a drastic reduction in plasma CK, with very poor neutralization of local CK loss, was achieved in the case of crotoxin B when antivenom was injected intravenously, whereas no neutralization was achieved in the case of Lys49 PLA(2). When tested in undifferentiated myoblasts in culture, Lys49 PLA(2) induced cytotoxicity, whereas crotoxin and crotoxin B did not, evidencing that the latter are devoid of widespread cytolytic activity. Molecular modeling analysis showed that Lys49 PLA(2) has a conspicuous cationic face, which is likely to interact with diverse membranes. In contrast, crotoxin B, despite its overall basic pI, has a lower density of positively charged residues at this molecular region. It is suggested that Lys49 PLA(2)s homologues interact, through this cationic face, with many different cell types, thus lacking specificity for muscle cells. In contrast, crotoxin B has a more selective interaction with targets in the muscle cell membrane. This selectivity might be the basis for the ability of crotoxin and crotoxin B to induce systemic myotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
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Villalobos JC, Mora R, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Angulo Y. Cytotoxicity induced in myotubes by a Lys49 phospholipase A2 homologue from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper: Evidence of rapid plasma membrane damage and a dual role for extracellular calcium. Toxicol In Vitro 2007; 21:1382-9. [PMID: 17560765 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2007.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Revised: 03/28/2007] [Accepted: 04/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Acute muscle tissue damage, myonecrosis, is a typical consequence of envenomations by snakes of the family Viperidae. Catalytically-inactive Lys49 phospholipase A(2) homologues are abundant myotoxic components in viperid venoms, causing plasma membrane damage by a mechanism independent of phospholipid hydrolysis. However, the precise mode of action of these myotoxins remains unsolved. In this work, a cell culture model of C2C12 myotubes was used to assess the action of Bothrops asper myotoxin II (Mt-II), a Lys49 phospholipase A(2) homologue. Mt-II induced a dose- and time-dependent cytotoxic effect associated with plasma membrane disruption, evidenced by the release of the cytosolic enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and the penetration of propidium iodide. A rapid increment in cytosolic Ca(2+) occurred after addition of Mt-II. Such elevation was associated with hypercontraction of myotubes and blebbing of plasma membrane. An increment in the Ca(2+) signal was observed in myotube nuclei. Elimination of extracellular Ca(2+) resulted in increased cytotoxicity upon incubation with Mt-II, suggesting a membrane-protective role for extracellular Ca(2+). Chelation of cytosolic Ca(2+) with BAPTA-AM did not modify the cytotoxic effect, probably due to the large increment induced by Mt-II in cytosolic Ca(2+) which overrides the chelating capacity of BAPTA-AM. It is concluded that Mt-II induces rapid and drastic plasma membrane lesion and a prominent Ca(2+) influx in myotubes. Extracellular Ca(2+) plays a dual role in this model: it protects the membrane from the cytolytic action of the toxin; at the same time, the Ca(2+) influx that occurs after membrane disruption is likely to play a key role in the intracellular degenerative events associated with Mt-II-induced myotube damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Carlos Villalobos
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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38
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Nascimento JM, Franchi GC, Nowill AE, Collares-Buzato CB, Hyslop S. Cytoskeletal rearrangement and cell death induced by Bothrops alternatus snake venom in cultured Madin–Darby canine kidney cells. Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 85:591-605. [PMID: 17901901 DOI: 10.1139/o07-067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bothrops snake venoms cause renal damage, with renal failure being the main cause of death in humans bitten by these snakes. In this work, we investigated the cytoskeletal rearrangement and cytotoxicity caused by Bothrops alternatus venom in cultured Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Incubation with venom (10 and 100 µg/mL) significantly (p <0.05) decreased the cellular uptake of neutral red dye after 1 and 3 h. Venom (100 µg/mL) also markedly decreased the transepithelial electrical resistance (RT) across MDCK monolayers. Staining with rhodamine-conjugated phalloidin revealed disarray of the cytoskeleton that involved the stress fibers at the basal cell surface and focal adhesion-associated F-actin in the cell–matrix contact region. Feulgen staining showed a significant decrease in the number of cells undergoing mitosis and an increase in the frequency of altered nuclei. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a decrease in the number of microvilli and the presence of cells with a fusiform format. Flow cytometry with annexin V and propidium iodide showed that cell death occurred by necrosis, with little apoptosis, a conclusion supported by the lack of DNA fragmentation characteristic of apoptosis. Pretreating the cells with catalase significantly attenuated the venom-induced loss of viability, indicating a possible involvement of H2O2 in the cellular damage; less protection was observed with superoxide dismutase or Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester. These results indicate that Bothrops alternatus venom is cytotoxic to cultured MDCK cells, possibly via the action of reactive oxygen species. This cytotoxicity could contribute to nephrotoxicity after envenoming by this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Minardi Nascimento
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, CP 6111, 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Chioato L, Aragão EA, Lopes Ferreira T, Medeiros AID, Faccioli LH, Ward RJ. Mapping of the structural determinants of artificial and biological membrane damaging activities of a Lys49 phospholipase A2 by scanning alanine mutagenesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2007; 1768:1247-57. [PMID: 17346668 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2007.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2006] [Revised: 01/22/2007] [Accepted: 01/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Scanning alanine mutagenesis has been used to study the structural determinants of several activities of bothropstoxin-I (BthTx-I), a lysine 49 Phospholipases A(2) from the venom of Bothrops jararacussu. A total of 31 mutants were generated in the interfacial recognition site and C-terminal loop regions of the protein. The effects of mutagenesis on the in vivo myotoxic activity, the cytolytic activity against cultured C2C12 myoblasts, the bactericidal activity, and the Ca(2+)-independent membrane damaging activity against liposome membranes were compared. Residues 116-119 and 122-125 in the C-terminal loop region are structural determinants for these activities, indicating that membrane permeabilization by the BthTx-I is an important general property in all the measured effects. The structural determinants of myotoxicity and myoblast membrane permeabilization are highly correlated, demonstrating that cultured C2C12 myoblasts are a good model for the myotoxic effect. However, comparison of the structural determinants for all activities revealed several differences in the structural determinants between the effects against myoblast and bacterial membranes, and further differences when compared to the liposome membrane damaging effect. These membrane dependent effects are interpreted to be the consequence of differences in the activation of the membrane bound form of the protein on biological and artificial membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucimara Chioato
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
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Damico DCS, Nascimento JM, Lomonte B, Ponce-Soto LA, Joazeiro PP, Novello JC, Marangoni S, Collares-Buzato CB. Cytotoxicity of Lachesis muta muta snake (bushmaster) venom and its purified basic phospholipase A2 (LmTX-I) in cultured cells. Toxicon 2007; 49:678-92. [PMID: 17208264 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2006] [Revised: 11/07/2006] [Accepted: 11/13/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Human envenoming by Lachesis muta muta venom, although infrequent, is rather severe, being characterized by pronounced local tissue damage and systemic dysfunctions. Studies on the pharmacological actions of L. m. muta venom are relatively scant and the direct actions of the crude venom and its purified phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) have not been addressed using in vitro models. In this work, we investigated the cytotoxicity of L. m. muta venom and its purified PLA(2) isoform LmTX-I in cultured Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) and in a skeletal muscle (C2C12) cell lines. As revealed by neutral red dye uptake assay, the crude venom (10 or 100 microg/ml) induced a significant decrease in cell viability of MDCK cells. LmTX-I at the concentrations tested (70-270 microg/ml or 5-20 microM) displayed no cytotoxicity in both MDCK and C2C12 cell lines. Morphometric analysis of Feulgen nuclear reaction revealed a significant increase in chromatin condensation (pyknosis), apparent reduction in the number of mitotic nuclei and nuclear fragmentation of some MDCK cells after incubation with L. m. muta venom. Monolayer exposure to crude venom resulted in morphological changes as assessed by scanning electron microscopy. The staining with TRITC-labelled phalloidin showed a marked disarray of the actin stress fiber following L. m. muta venom exposure. In contrast, LmTX-I had no effect on nucleus and cell morphologies as well as on stress fiber organization. These results indicate that L. m. muta venom exerts toxic effects on cultured MDCK cells. The LmTX-I probably does not contribute per se to the direct venom cytotoxicity, these effects are mediated by metalloproteinases/disintegrins and other components of the venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela C S Damico
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biology, State University of Campinas, PO Box 6109, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Ponce-Soto LA, Lomonte B, Rodrigues-Simioni L, Novello JC, Marangoni S. Biological and Structural Characterization of Crotoxin and New Isoform of Crotoxin B PLA2 (F6a) from Crotalus durissus collilineatus Snake Venom. Protein J 2007; 26:221-30. [PMID: 17203389 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-006-9063-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A new crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a), from Crotalus durissus collilineatus was purified from by one step reverse phase HPLC chromatography using mu-Bondapack C-18 column analytic. The new crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a), complex crotoxin, the catalytic subunit crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a) and two crotapotin isoforms (F3 and F4), were isolated from the venom of Crotalus durissus collilineatus. The crotapotins isoforms F3 and F4 had similar chemical properties, the two proteins different in their ability to inhibit of isoforms of PLA(2) (F6 and F6a). The molecular masses estimated by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry were: crotoxin B: 14,943.14 Da, crotapotin F3: 8,693.24 Da, and crotapotin F4: 9 314.56 Da. The new crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a) contained 122 amino acid residues and a pI of 8.58. Its amino acid sequence presents high identity with those of other PLA(2)s, particularly in the calcium binding loop and active site helix 3. It also presents similarities in the C-terminal region with other myotoxic PLA(2)s. The new crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a) contained 122 amino acid residues, with a primary structure of HLLQFNKMIK FETRRNAIPP YAFYGCYCGW GGRGRPKDAT DRCCFVHDCC YGKLAKCNTK WDFYRYSLKS GYITCGKGTW CEEQICECDR VAAECLRRSL STYRYGYMIY PDSRCRGPSE TC. A neuromuscular blocking activity was induced by crotoxin and new crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a) in the isolated mouse phrenic nerve diaphragm and the biventer cervicis chick nerve-muscle preparation. Whole crotoxin was devoid of cytolytic activity upon myoblasts and myotubes in vitro, whereas new crotoxin B isoform PLA(2) (F6a) was clearly cytotoxic to these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Alberto Ponce-Soto
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Biologia (IB), Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), CP 6109, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil.
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Miyabara EH, Baptista IL, Lomonte B, Selistre-de-Araújo HS, Gutiérrez JM, Moriscot AS. Effect of calcineurin inhibitors on myotoxic activity of crotoxin and Bothrops asper phospholipase A2 myotoxins in vivo and in vitro. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2006; 143:284-94. [PMID: 16635590 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2006.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2005] [Revised: 03/03/2006] [Accepted: 03/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that calcineurin activity plays a critical role in the myotoxic activity induced by crotoxin (CTX), a group II phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) with neurotoxic and myotoxic actions. In order to address whether calcineurin is also important for the activity of non-neurotoxic group II PLA(2) myotoxins we have compared the effects of calcineurin inhibition on the myotoxic capacity of CTX and the non-neurotoxic PLA(2)s, myotoxin II (Mt II) and myotoxin III (Mt III) from Bothrops asper venom. Rats were treated with cyclosporin A (CsA) or FK506, calcineurin inhibitors, and received an intramuscular injection of either CTX, Mt II or Mt III into the tibialis anterior. Animals were killed 24 h after injection of toxins. Tibialis anterior was removed and stored in liquid nitrogen. Myofibers in culture were also treated with CsA or FK506 and exposed to CTX, Mt II and Mt III. It was observed that, in contrast to CTX, CsA and FK506 do not attenuate myotoxic effects induced by both Mt II and Mt III in vivo and in vitro. The results of the present study suggest that calcineurin is not essential for the myotoxic activity of Mt II and Mt III, indicating that distinct intracellular pathways might be involved in myonecrosis induced by neurotoxic CTX and non-neurotoxic Bothrops sp. PLA(2) myotoxins. Alternatively, calcineurin dependent fast fiber type shift might render the muscle resistant to the action of CTX, without affecting its susceptibility to Bothrops sp. myotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- E H Miyabara
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av Lineu Prestes 1524, São Paulo, 05508-900, SP, Brazil
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43
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Mora R, Maldonado A, Valverde B, Gutiérrez JM. Calcium plays a key role in the effects induced by a snake venom Lys49 phospholipase A2 homologue on a lymphoblastoid cell line. Toxicon 2006; 47:75-86. [PMID: 16303159 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2005] [Revised: 10/07/2005] [Accepted: 10/08/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A catalytically-inactive Lys49 phospholipase A2 homologue from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper induces diverse effects (necrosis, apoptosis and proliferation) in a lymphoblastoid cell line, depending on the toxin concentration. The increments in cytosolic Ca2+ levels induced by this toxin in this cell line were assessed. At high toxin concentration (100 microg/mL) the toxin induces drastic disruption of the plasma membrane, associated with a prominent Ca2+ influx and necrosis. Previous incubation of the cells with the chelating agent EGTA or with ruthenium red, an inhibitor of the uniporter mitochondrial Ca2+ transport, greatly reduced necrosis. At a toxin concentration of 12.5 microg/mL, apoptosis is the predominant response, being associated with lower increments in cytosolic Ca2+. This effect was inhibited by preincubation with ruthenium red and the cytosolic Ca2+ chelator BAPTA-AM. The proliferative response, which occurs at a low toxin concentration (0.5 microg/mL), is associated with a small and oscillatory increment in cytosolic Ca2+. It was inhibited by EGTA, ruthenium red and BAPTA-AM, by inhibitors of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA) and by blockade of the ryanodine receptor. It is concluded that necrosis and apoptosis induced by this toxin are associated with increments in cytosolic Ca2+ levels following plasma membrane perturbation, together with the involvement of mitochondria. The cellular proliferative response depends on a limited Ca2+ influx through the plasma membrane, being associated with a concerted functional unit constituted by SERCA, the ryanodine receptor and mitochondria, which regulate the observed oscillations in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Mora
- Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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44
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Zuliani JP, Gutiérrez JM, Casais e Silva LL, Coccuzzo Sampaio S, Lomonte B, Pereira Teixeira CDF. Activation of cellular functions in macrophages by venom secretory Asp-49 and Lys-49 phospholipases A2. Toxicon 2005; 46:523-32. [PMID: 16085208 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Revised: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 06/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro effects of myotoxin III (MT-III), an Asp-49 catalytically-active phospholipase A(2), and myotoxin II (MT-II), a catalytically-inactive Lys-49 variant, isolated from Bothrops asper snake venom, on phagocytosis and production of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) by thioglycollate-elicited macrophages were investigated. MT-II and MT-III were cytotoxic to mouse peritoneal macrophages at concentrations higher than 25 microg/ml. At non-cytotoxic concentrations, MT-II stimulated Fcgamma, complement, mannose and beta-glucan receptors-mediated phagocytosis, whereas MT-III stimulated only the mannose and beta-glucan receptors-mediated phagocytosis. Moreover, both myotoxins induced the release of H(2)O(2) by thioglycollate-elicited macrophages, MT-III being the most potent stimulator. MT-II induced the release of H(2)O(2) only at a concentration of 3.2 microg/ml (130% increment) while MT-III induced this effect at all concentrations tested (0.5-2.5 microg/ml; average of 206% increment). It is concluded that, at non-cytotoxic concentrations, MT-II and MT-III activate defense mechanisms in macrophages up regulating phagocytosis, mainly via mannose and beta-glucan receptors, and the respiratory burst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Pavan Zuliani
- Laboratorio de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av.Vital Brazil, 1500-CEP 05503-900 Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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45
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Mora R, Valverde B, Díaz C, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM. A Lys49 phospholipase A(2) homologue from Bothrops asper snake venom induces proliferation, apoptosis and necrosis in a lymphoblastoid cell line. Toxicon 2005; 45:651-60. [PMID: 15777961 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2004] [Revised: 01/04/2005] [Accepted: 01/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Lys49 phospholipase A(2) homologues are abundant in viperid snake venoms. These proteins have substitutions at the calcium-binding loop and catalytic center which render them enzymatically inactive; however, they display a series of toxic activities, particularly cytotoxicity upon various cell lines in vitro. In this study we explored whether myotoxin II (MT-II), a Lys49 phospholipase A(2) homologue from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper, is capable of inducing various effects in a single cell type, using the lymphoblastoid B cell line CRL-8062 as a model. Cells were incubated with varying concentrations of MT-II for 24 and 48 h, time intervals that are more prolonged than the usual incubation times previously used in the characterization of this toxin. Results indicate that MT-II induces proliferation at low concentrations (0.5-5.0 microg/mL). Apoptosis was predominant at higher toxin levels (5-25 microg/mL), whereas necrosis, associated with overt plasma membrane disruption, occurred at concentrations > or =25 microg/mL, and was the predominant effect at higher MT-II concentrations (50 microg/mL). It is concluded that a single phospholipase A(2) homologue can induce markedly different effects on a single cell line, depending on the concentration used, an observation that may have implications for the action of this type of venom component in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Mora
- Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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46
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Flores-Díaz M, Alape-Girón A, Clark G, Catimel B, Hirabayashi Y, Nice E, Gutiérrez JM, Titball R, Thelestam M. A cellular deficiency of gangliosides causes hypersensitivity to Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:26680-9. [PMID: 15919667 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m500278200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens phospholipase C (Cp-PLC), also called alpha-toxin, is the major virulence factor in the pathogenesis of gas gangrene. Previously, a cellular UDP-Glc deficiency was related with a hypersensitivity to the cytotoxic effect of Cp-PLC. Because UDP-Glc is required in the synthesis of proteoglycans, N-linked glycoproteins, and glycosphingolipids, the role of these gly-coconjugates in the cellular sensitivity to Cp-PLC was studied. The cellular sensitivity to Cp-PLC was significantly enhanced by glycosphingolipid synthesis inhibitors, and a mutant cell line deficient in gangliosides was found to be hypersensitive to Cp-PLC. Gangliosides protected hypersensitive cells from the cytotoxic effect of Cp-PLC and prevented its membrane-disrupting effect on artificial membranes. Removal of sialic acids by C. perfringens sialidase increases the sensitivity of cultured cells to Cp-PLC and intramuscular co-injection of C. perfringens sialidase, and Cp-PLC in mice potentiates the myotoxic effect of the latter. This work demonstrated that a reduction in gangliosides renders cells more susceptible to the membrane damage caused by Cp-PLC and revealed a previously unrecognized synergism between Cp-PLC and C. perfringens sialidase, providing new insights toward understanding the pathogenesis of clostridial myonecrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marietta Flores-Díaz
- Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm S-17177, Sweden
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47
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Cavalcante WLG, Silva MDP, Gallacci M. Influence of temperature upon paralyzing and myotoxic effects of bothropstoxin-I on mouse neuromuscular preparations. Chem Biol Interact 2005; 151:95-100. [PMID: 15698581 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2004.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2004] [Revised: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 12/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Bothropstoxin-I (BthTX-I), from B. jararacussu venom, is a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) homologue devoid of enzymatic activity. Besides inducing severe myonecrosis, BthTX-I promotes paralysis of both directly and indirectly evoked contractions in isolated neuromuscular preparations. We applied an experimental paradigm in order to characterize the steps involved in the toxic effects of BthTX-I on mouse neuromuscular junction. Myotoxicity was assessed by microscopic analysis of extensor digitorum longus muscles; paralyzing activity was evaluated through the recording of isolated contractions indirectly evoked in phrenic-diaphragm preparations. After 90 min at 35 degrees C, BthTX-I induced complete and irreversible paralysis, and damaged 30.3+/-2.7% of muscle fibers. In contrast, no effect was observed when tissues were incubated with BthTX-I at 10 degrees C for 60 min and subsequently washed with toxin-free solution and maintained at 35 degrees C. These results indicate that the binding of BthTX-I to the cellular tissue surface is very weak at low temperature and that an additional factor is necessary. However, when tissues were submitted to BthTX-I (10 degrees C for 60 min), and the temperature was elevated to 35 degrees C, omitting the washing step, it was observed muscle paralysis and damage in 39.04+/-4.2% of muscle fibers. These results indicate that a temperature-dependent step is necessary for BthTX-I to promote both its myotoxic and paralyzing activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter L G Cavalcante
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rubião Júnior, Botucatu, CEP 18618-000, São Paulo, Brazil
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48
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Angulo Y, Lomonte B. Differential susceptibility of C2C12 myoblasts and myotubes to group II phospholipase A2 myotoxins from crotalid snake venoms. Cell Biochem Funct 2005; 23:307-13. [PMID: 15657942 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.1208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Group II phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) myotoxins isolated from Viperidae/Crotalidae snake venoms induce a rapid cytolytic effect upon diverse cell types in vitro. Previous studies suggested that this effect could be more pronounced on skeletal muscle myotubes than on other cell types, including undifferentiated myoblasts. This study utilized the murine skeletal muscle C2C12 cell line to investigate whether differentiated myotubes are more susceptible than myoblasts, and if this characteristic is specific for the group II myotoxic PLA(2)s. The release of lactic dehydrogenase was quantified as a measure of cytolysis, 3 h after cell exposure to different group II PLA(2)s purified from Bothrops asper, Atropoides nummifer, Cerrophidion godmani, and Bothriechis schlegelii venoms. In addition, susceptibility to lysis induced by synthetic melittin and group III PLA(2) from bee (Apis mellifera) venom, as well as by anionic, cationic, and neutral detergents, was comparatively evaluated on the two cultures. Myotubes were significantly more susceptible to group II PLA(2) myotoxins, but not to the other agents tested, under the same conditions. Moreover, the increased susceptibility of myotubes over myoblasts was also demonstrated with two cytolytic synthetic peptides, derived from the C-terminal region of Lys49 PLA(2) myotoxins, that reproduce the action of their parent proteins. These results indicate that fusion and differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes induce changes that render these cells more susceptible to the toxic mechanism of group II PLA(2) myotoxins, but not to general perturbations of membrane homeostasis. Such changes are likely to involve myotoxin acceptor site(s), which remain(s) to be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamileth Angulo
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Gutiérrez JM, Ownby CL. Skeletal muscle degeneration induced by venom phospholipases A2: insights into the mechanisms of local and systemic myotoxicity. Toxicon 2004; 42:915-31. [PMID: 15019491 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Local and systemic skeletal muscle degeneration is a common consequence of envenomations due to snakebites and mass bee attacks. Phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are important myotoxic components in these venoms, inducing a similar pattern of degenerative events in muscle cells. Myotoxic PLA2s bind to acceptors in the plasma membrane, which might be lipids or proteins and which may differ in their affinity for the PLA2s. Upon binding, myotoxic PLA2s disrupt the integrity of the plasma membrane by catalytically dependent or independent mechanisms, provoking a pronounced Ca2+ influx which, in turn, initiates a complex series of degenerative events associated with hypercontraction, activation of calpains and cytosolic Ca(2+)-dependent PLA2s, and mitochondrial Ca2+ overload. Cell culture models of cytotoxicity indicate that some myotoxic PLA2s affect differentiated myotubes in a rather selective fashion, whereas others display a broad cytolytic effect. A model is presented to explain the difference between PLA2s that induce predominantly local myonecrosis and those inducing both local and systemic myotoxicity. The former bind not only to muscle cells, but also to other cell types, thereby precluding a systemic distribution of these PLA2s and their action on distant muscles. In contrast, PLA2s that bind muscle cells in a more selective way are not sequestered by non-specific interactions with other cells and, consequently, are systemically distributed and reach muscle cells in other locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
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Lizano S, Domont G, Perales J. Natural phospholipase A(2) myotoxin inhibitor proteins from snakes, mammals and plants. Toxicon 2004; 42:963-77. [PMID: 15019494 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A renewed interest in the phenomenon of inter- and intra-species resistance towards the toxicity of snake venoms, coupled with the search for new strategies for treatment of snake envenomations, has prompted the discovery of proteins which neutralize the major toxic components of these venoms. Among these emerging groups of proteins are inhibitors of toxic phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), many of which exhibit a wide range of toxic effects including muscle-tissue damage, neurotoxicity, and inflammation. These proteins have been isolated from both venomous and non-venomous snakes, mammals, and most recently from medicinal plant extracts. The snake blood-derived inhibitors have been grouped into three major classes, alpha, beta, and gamma, based on common structural motifs found in other proteins with diverse physiological properties. In mammals, DM64, an anti-myotoxic protein isolated from opossum serum, belongs to the immunoglobulin super gene family and is homologous to human alpha1B-glycoprotein and DM43, a metalloproteinase inhibitor from the same organism. In plants, a short note is made of WSG, a newly described anti-toxic-PLA2 glycoprotein isolated from Withania somnifera (Ashwaganda), a medicinal plant whose aqueous extracts neutralize the PLA2 activity of the Naja naja venom. The implications of these new groups of PLA2 toxin inhibitors in the context of our current understanding of snake biology as well as in the development of novel therapeutic reagents in the treatment of snake envenomations worldwide are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Lizano
- Facultad de Microbiología, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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