1
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Anderson R, Huang Y, Langley JM. Prospects for defined epitope vaccines for respiratory syncytial virus. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:585-602. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The history of vaccines for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) illustrates the complex immunity and immunopathology to this ubiquitous virus, starting from the failed formalin-inactivated vaccine trials performed in the 1960s. An attractive alternative to traditional live or killed virus vaccines is a defined vaccine composed of discrete antigenic epitopes for which immunological activities have been characterized as comprehensively as possible. Here we present cumulative data on murine and human CD4, CD8 and neutralization epitopes identified in RSV proteins along with information regarding their associated immune responses and host-dependent variability. Identification and characterization of RSV epitopes is a rapidly expanding topic of research with potential contributions to the tailored design of improved safe and effective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Anderson
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Pediatrics and Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 1X5, Canada
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology and Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 1X5, Canada
| | - Joanne M Langley
- Department of Pediatrics, Community Health & Epidemiology and Canadian Center for Vaccinology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 1X5, Canada
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2
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Arcuri HA, Apponi LH, Valentini SR, Durigon EL, de Azevedo WF, Fossey MA, Rahal P, de Souza FP. Expression and purification of human respiratory syncytial virus recombinant fusion protein. Protein Expr Purif 2008; 62:146-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2008.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2008] [Revised: 08/12/2008] [Accepted: 08/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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3
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Wu H, Pfarr DS, Losonsky GA, Kiener PA. Immunoprophylaxis of RSV infection: advancing from RSV-IGIV to palivizumab and motavizumab. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007; 317:103-23. [PMID: 17990791 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-72146-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Antibodies mediate humoral immune responses and play key roles in the defense of viral infection by the recognition, neutralization, and elimination of viruses from the circulation. For the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, the natural immune response to RSV from pooled human plasma has been harvested and successfully developed as a prophylactic polyclonal RSV hyperimmune globulin, RespiGam (RSV-IGIV; MedImmune, Gaithersburg, MD). The success of RSV-IGIV validated the immunoprophylaxis approach for RSV prevention and led to the development of Synagis (palivizumab; MedImmune, Gaithersburg, MD), a humanized monoclonal antibody (mAb) that binds to the RSV F protein. Palivizumab is a potent anti-RSV mAb that is about 50-fold more potent than RSV-IGIV, and since obtaining regulatory approval in 1998 it has been used extensively to help prevent severe RSV disease in high-risk infants and children. However, a very small number of patients receiving the drug do not appear to be adequately protected. To further improve protection against RSV, we have applied a directed evolution approach to enhance the binding of palivizumab to F protein by manipulation of both the on and off rates. These efforts have yielded a more potent second-generation mAb, motavizumab, which is currently under study in phase III clinical trials. Most recently, a third generation mAb, Numax-YTE, has been generated with the intent to extend the serum half-life of the mAb in humans. If successfully developed, this drug may offer the opportunity for less frequent dosing, obviating the need for the monthly treatments that are required with palivizumab. The development of these anti-RSV approaches exemplifies the accelerated pace of drug development made possible with cutting-edge antibody engineering technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wu
- MedImmune, Inc., One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA.
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4
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Wu SJ, Schmidt A, Beil EJ, Day ND, Branigan PJ, Liu C, Gutshall LL, Palomo C, Furze J, Taylor G, Melero JA, Tsui P, Del Vecchio AM, Kruszynski M. Characterization of the epitope for anti-human respiratory syncytial virus F protein monoclonal antibody 101F using synthetic peptides and genetic approaches. J Gen Virol 2007; 88:2719-2723. [PMID: 17872524 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82753-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimeric 101F (ch101F) is a mouse–human chimeric anti-human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) neutralizing antibody that recognizes residues within antigenic site IV, V, VI of the fusion (F) glycoprotein. The binding of ch101F to a series of peptides overlapping aa 422–438 spanning antigenic site IV, V, VI was analysed. Residues 423–436 comprise the minimal peptide sequence for ch101F binding. Substitution analysis revealed that R429 and K433 are critical for ch101F binding, whilst K427 makes a minor contribution. Binding of ch101F to a series of single mutations at positions 427, 429 and 433 in the F protein expressed recombinantly on the cell surface confirmed the peptide results. Sequence analysis of viruses selected for resistance to neutralization by ch101F indicated that a single change (K433T) in the F protein allowed ch101F escape. The results confirm that ch101F and palivizumab have different epitope specificity and define key residues for ch101F recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Jiun Wu
- Protein Engineering, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Albert Schmidt
- Protein Engineering, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Eric J Beil
- Protein Engineering, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Nicole D Day
- Immunobiology, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Patrick J Branigan
- Immunobiology, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Changbao Liu
- Immunobiology, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Lester L Gutshall
- Immunobiology, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Concepción Palomo
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Julie Furze
- Institute for Animal Health, Compton, Newbury, Berkshire RG20 7NN, UK
| | - Geraldine Taylor
- Institute for Animal Health, Compton, Newbury, Berkshire RG20 7NN, UK
| | - José A Melero
- Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ping Tsui
- Molecular Discovery Technologies, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Alfred M Del Vecchio
- Immunobiology, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
| | - Marian Kruszynski
- Protein Engineering, Centocor R&D Inc., 145 King of Prussia Road, Radnor, PA 19087, USA
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5
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Franke J, Batts WN, Ahne W, Kurath G, Winton JR. Sequence motifs and prokaryotic expression of the reptilian paramyxovirus fusion protein. Arch Virol 2005; 151:449-64. [PMID: 16328138 PMCID: PMC7086783 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-005-0663-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2005] [Accepted: 09/19/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fourteen reptilian paramyxovirus isolates were chosen to represent the known extent of genetic diversity among this novel group of viruses. Selected regions of the fusion (F) gene were sequenced, analyzed and compared. The F gene of all isolates contained conserved motifs homologous to those described for other members of the family Paramyxoviridae including: signal peptide, transmembrane domain, furin cleavage site, fusion peptide, N-linked glycosylation sites, and two heptad repeats, the second of which (HRB-LZ) had the characteristics of a leucine zipper. Selected regions of the fusion gene of isolate Gono-GER85 were inserted into a prokaryotic expression system to generate three recombinant protein fragments of various sizes. The longest recombinant protein was cleaved by furin into two fragments of predicted length. Western blot analysis with virus-neutralizing rabbit-antiserum against this isolate demonstrated that only the longest construct reacted with the antiserum. This construct was unique in containing 30 additional C-terminal amino acids that included most of the HRB-LZ. These results indicate that the F genes of reptilian paramyxoviruses contain highly conserved motifs typical of other members of the family and suggest that the HRB-LZ domain of the reptilian paramyxovirus F protein contains a linear antigenic epitope.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Franke
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Fisheries Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98115, USA
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6
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Agenbach E, Tiemessen CT, Venter M. Amino acid variation within the fusion protein of respiratory syncytial virus subtype A and B strains during annual epidemics in South Africa. Virus Genes 2005; 30:267-78. [PMID: 15744582 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-004-5633-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2004] [Accepted: 10/05/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence of positive selection within the cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) epitopes of the highly conserved nucleoprotein of influenza virus raised the question of whether the CTL epitopes of Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are also affected by immune driven change over annual epidemics. The fusion protein (F-protein) of RSV is highly conserved within the two subtypes (A and B) and the most important target for the protective response. The position of various neutralizing epitopes has been mapped and characterized between RSV subtypes. CTL epitopes have also recently been mapped for the F-protein of subtype A, however variation within these epitopes between and within the subtypes has not been determined. To address this question, the F-proteins of 18 strains representative of all subgroup A and B genotypes identified in South Africa over a period of 5 years were sequenced. F-protein sequences were highly conserved within and between South African genotypes, with most variability occurring at the nucleotide level. Most of the amino acid differences identified within neutralizing and CTL epitopes were conserved within the subtypes, and therefore does not indicate immune selection. However, out of three CTL epitopes previously identified in subtype A, two (restricted to HLA B*57 and HLA A *01) were conserved only within subtype A, while the third (restricted to Cw*12) contained both subtype- and genotype-specific changes. These results suggest that most of the identified CTL epitopes are subtype A-specific and may not be recognized in subtype B viruses, while the HLA Cw*12 restricted epitope may also not be recognized efficiently in GA5 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Agenbach
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Private bag X4, Modderfonteinroad, 2131, Sandringham, South Africa
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7
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Connor A, Bevitt D, Toms G. Comparison of human respiratory syncytial virus A2 and 8/60 fusion glycoprotein gene sequences and mapping of sub-group specific antibody epitopes. J Med Virol 2001. [DOI: 10.1002/1096-9071(20000201)63:2<168::aid-jmv1012>3.0.co;2-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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8
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Calder LJ, González-Reyes L, García-Barreno B, Wharton SA, Skehel JJ, Wiley DC, Melero JA. Electron microscopy of the human respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein and complexes that it forms with monoclonal antibodies. Virology 2000; 271:122-31. [PMID: 10814577 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2000.0279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Full-length fusion (F) glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) and a truncated anchorless mutant lacking the C-terminal 50 amino acids were expressed from vaccinia recombinants and purified by immunoaffinity chromatography and sucrose gradient centrifugation. Electron microscopy of full-length F protein in the absence of detergents revealed micelles, (i.e., rosettes) containing two distinct types of protein rods, one cone-shaped and the other lollipop-shaped. Analysis of membrane anchorless F molecules indicated that they were similar to the cone-shaped rods and that rosettes, which they formed on storage, were made up of lollipop-shaped rods. The two forms of F protein may represent different structures that the molecule may adopt before and after activation for its role in membrane fusion. Studies of complexes of these structures with monoclonal antibodies of known specificity provide information on the three-dimensional organization of antigenic sites on the F protein and confirm the oligomeric structure, possibly trimeric, of both full-length F and membrane anchorless F.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Calder
- National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, NW7 1AA, United Kingdom
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9
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López JA, Bustos R, Orvell C, Berois M, Arbiza J, García-Barreno B, Melero JA. Antigenic structure of human respiratory syncytial virus fusion glycoprotein. J Virol 1998; 72:6922-8. [PMID: 9658147 PMCID: PMC109907 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.72.8.6922-6928.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
New series of escape mutants of human respiratory syncytial virus were prepared with monoclonal antibodies specific for the fusion (F) protein. Sequence changes selected in the escape mutants identified two new antigenic sites (V and VI) recognized by neutralizing antibodies and a group-specific site (I) in the F1 chain of the F molecule. The new epitopes, and previously identified antigenic sites, were incorporated into a refined prediction of secondary-structure motifs to generate a detailed antigenic map of the F glycoprotein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A López
- Centro Nacional de Biología Fundamental, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, 28220 Madrid, Spain
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10
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Power UF, Plotnicky-Gilquin H, Huss T, Robert A, Trudel M, Ståhl S, Uhlén M, Nguyen TN, Binz H. Induction of protective immunity in rodents by vaccination with a prokaryotically expressed recombinant fusion protein containing a respiratory syncytial virus G protein fragment. Virology 1997; 230:155-66. [PMID: 9143271 DOI: 10.1006/viro.1997.8465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A subunit approach to the development of a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine was investigated. It involved the production, in Escherichia coli, of an RSV (Long) G protein fragment (G2Na) as a C-terminal fusion partner to an albumin binding region (BB) of streptococcal protein G. G2Na incorporated amino acid residues 130-230 and was specifically recognized by murine anti-RSV-A polyclonal serum. In mice, intraperitoneal immunization with BBG2Na induced high anti-RSV-A serum ELISA titers and low to moderate neutralization activity. The immune response induced by BBG2Na demonstrated a potent protective efficacy against upper and lower respiratory tract RSV-A infection. The immunogenicity and protective efficacy of BBG2Na was maintained for at least 47 and 48 weeks, respectively, and was as potent and durable as live RSV-A administered in a similar fashion. Intramuscular immunization of cotton rats with BBG2Na protected lungs from both homologous and heterologous virus challenge. In contrast to mice, however, cotton rat nasal tracts were not protected after BBG2Na immunization. Consistent with antibody-mediated protection, virus was cleared within 24 hr from the lungs of BBG2Na-immunized mice. The anti-RSV-A antibodies induced in mice were exclusively of the IgG1 isotype and were detected in the serum, lungs, and nasal tracts. Passive transfer of these antibodies prevented acute, and eliminated chronic, RSV-A lung infection in normal and immunodeficient mice, respectively, confirming that such antibodies are important and sufficient for BBG2Na-induced pulmonary protection. Our results clearly demonstrate that BBG2Na contains an important immunogenic domain of the RSV G protein. The prokaryotic origin of this protein indicates that glycosylation of the RSV G protein is not necessary for protective efficacy. Thus, BBG2Na has potential as an RSV subunit vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- U F Power
- Centre d'Immunologie Pierre Fabre, Saint-Julien-en-Genevois, France
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11
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Naval J, Piñol J, Rebordosa X, Serra-Hartmann X, Pérez-Pons JA, Querol E. Expression in Escherichia coli and purification of soluble forms of the F protein of bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Protein Expr Purif 1997; 9:288-94. [PMID: 9056494 DOI: 10.1006/prep.1996.0688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Six fragments of the F gene from bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) were engineered into the pMAL-c2 Escherichia coli expression vector and expressed as C-terminal maltose-binding protein (MBP) fusion products. The resulting polypeptides were partially soluble and single-step purified by affinity chromatography. These fusion proteins were recognized in Western blots by several MAbs directed against human respiratory syncytial virus F protein. In addition, rabbit polyclonal antisera raised against two purified MBP-derived proteins reacted with the BRSV-F protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Naval
- Institut de Biologia Fonamental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
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12
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Matheise JP, Walravens K, Collard A, Coppe P, Letesson JJ. Antigenic analysis of the F protein of the bovine respiratory syncytial virus: identification of two distinct antigenic sites involved in fusion inhibition. Arch Virol 1995; 140:993-1005. [PMID: 7541983 DOI: 10.1007/bf01315410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
From two independent fusions, fifteen MAbs directed to the F protein of the bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) were characterized by radio-immunoprecipitation assays. Competition binding assays among these MAbs identified two distinct antigenic sites (A and B) and one overlapping site (AB). All of the MAbs specific to epitopes belonging to site A neutralized the infectivity of the virus in vitro and recognized human and bovine RSV strains. Only two out of the five MAbs directed to epitopes of site B were neutralizing and three reacted with all of the RSV strains tested, suggesting that the epitopes constituting this domain present heterogeneous characteristics. In each of sites A and B, one of the neutralizing MAbs also inhibited cell fusion. The biological relevance of these domains was established by competing representative MAbs and sera from BRSV-infected calves.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Matheise
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie-Immunologie, Facultés Universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix, Namur, Belgium
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13
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Murby M, Samuelsson E, Nguyen TN, Mignard L, Power U, Binz H, Uhlén M, Ståhl S. Hydrophobicity engineering to increase solubility and stability of a recombinant protein from respiratory syncytial virus. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1995; 230:38-44. [PMID: 7601124 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20531.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Site-directed mutagenesis has been employed to engineer the hydrophobic properties of a 101-amino-acid fragment from the human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) major glycoprotein (G protein). When this protein was produced in Escherichia coli, more than 70% of the gene product was found as inclusion bodies, and the product recovered from the soluble fraction was severely degraded. Substitution of two cysteine residues for serine residues, did not significantly change the solubility or stability of the gene product. In contrast, a dramatic increase in both solubility and stability was achieved by multiple engineering of hydrophobic phenylalanine residues. As compared to the non-engineered protein, the fraction of soluble protein in vivo could be increased from 27% to 75%. Surprisingly, this effect was accompanied by a remarkable increase in stability. The in vitro solubility of the purified gene products was similarly increased approximately fivefold. Structural studies using circular dichroism suggest that the two engineered fragments have a distribution of secondary-structure elements similar to the non-engineered fragment. In addition, the two engineered G-protein variants were demonstrated to be at least in part antigenically authentic to the non-engineered gene product. These results demonstrate that engineering of hydrophobic residues can be used as a tool to increase the solubility and proteolytic stability of poorly soluble and labile proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Murby
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
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14
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Plows DJ, Pringle CR. Variation in the fusion glycoprotein gene of human respiratory syncytial virus subgroup A. Virus Genes 1995; 11:37-45. [PMID: 8808333 DOI: 10.1007/bf01701660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Six different genotypes (designated lineages SHL1-6) of human respiratory syncytial (RS) virus have been defined by partial nucleotide sequence analysis of the variable SH and the hypervariable G membrane protein genes, and by restriction fragment analysis of the conserved N protein gene of viruses isolated in south Birmingham. Viruses of very similar genotype appear to be present worldwide at the present time. We have determined the nucleotide sequences of the fusion protein genes of five viruses isolated in south Birmingham in the same year, but belonging to different lineages, and have compared them with the sequences of four subgroup A viruses isolated at earlier times from diverse localities. The sequence diversity of the F genes of these five viruses, as measured by nucleotide (94.5-98.5%) and inferred amino acid (97.0-99.3%) identifies, is comparable with that of the nine subgroup A viruses considered as a whole. No sequence changes occur in any of the sites of known epitopes. Comparison of the nine subgroup A sequences with the published sequences of a subgroup B strain and three bovine RS viruses confirms that the F protein sequences are most divergent in the F2 region.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Antigens, Viral/chemistry
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- Base Sequence
- Cells, Cultured
- DNA Primers/genetics
- DNA, Viral/genetics
- Genes, Viral
- Genetic Variation
- Genotype
- Humans
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Protein Conformation
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Bovine/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/classification
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/genetics
- Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Human/isolation & purification
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Viral Fusion Proteins/chemistry
- Viral Fusion Proteins/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Plows
- Biological Sciences Department, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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15
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Leinikki P, Lehtinen M, Hyöty H, Parkkonen P, Kantanen ML, Hakulinen J. Synthetic peptides as diagnostic tools in virology. Adv Virus Res 1993; 42:149-86. [PMID: 7679241 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3527(08)60085-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P Leinikki
- HIV Laboratory, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland
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