Critical flicker fusion in normal and binocularly deprived cats

Rat superior colliculus encodes the transition between static and dynamic vision modes

The visual continuity illusion involves a shift in visual perception from static to dynamic vision modes when the stimuli arrive at high temporal frequency, and is critical for recognizing objects moving in the environment. However, how this illusion is encoded across the visual pathway remains poorly understood, with disparate frequency thresholds at retinal, cortical, and behavioural levels suggesting the involvement of other brain areas. Here, we employ a multimodal approach encompassing behaviour, whole-brain functional MRI, and electrophysiological measurements, for investigating the encoding of the continuity illusion in rats. Behavioural experiments report a frequency threshold of 18±2 Hz. Functional MRI reveal that superior colliculus signals transition from positive to negative at the behaviourally-driven threshold, unlike thalamic and cortical areas. Electrophysiological recordings indicate that these transitions are underpinned by neural activation/suppression. Lesions in the primary visual cortex reveal this effect to be intrinsic to the superior colliculus (under a cortical gain effect). Our findings highlight the superior colliculus' crucial involvement in encoding temporal frequency shifts, especially the change from static to dynamic vision modes.

Characteristics of cytochrome oxidase activity in visual system neurons in kittens reared in conditions of flashing illumination

The studies reported here addressed the effects of flashing (15 Hz) lights on the metabolic activity of visual system neurons in animals reared in condition of crepuscular illumination. Activity of the respiratory enzyme cytochrome oxidase was detected in the cortex of visual areas 17 and 18 and in the lateral geniculate body in kittens. The results showed that kittens subjected to this stimulation, unlike intact kittens and kittens reared in conditions of crepuscular illumination, showed a change in the pattern of cytochrome oxidase distribution in cortical field 17 consisting of the appearance of alternating areas of increased and decreased enzyme activity in layers III and IV. In cortical field 18 and the lateral geniculate body, experimental kittens showed no changes in the cytochrome oxidase activity distribution pattern. It is suggested that flashing illumination leads to disturbance of the balance in activity in the Y and X conducting channels of the visual system.

Visual reaction time of cats to different spatial frequencies

If physiological mechanisms similar to cat Y and X cells explain faster detection of low spatial frequencies by humans, then cats should show the same effect. We have tested this prediction by determining the visual reaction time of cats over a range of spatial frequencies and contrasts by training them to respond quickly when a vertical sine-wave grating was presented. At 50% contrast, the cat's visual reaction time increased monotonically from 0.25-2.0 cpd (cycle/deg). At every spatial frequency tested, the cat's reaction time increased monotonically as contrast decreased. By determining contrast threshold (70% detection) at each spatial frequency, it was possible to determine reaction times for different spatial frequencies at equal physical contrasts and equal "threshold equivalent" contrasts. Some of the cat's faster detection of low spatial frequencies was due to sensitivity differences and some was not. To determine if faster detection of low spatial frequencies was based upon Y cells, we took advantage of the fact that Y cells show a strong peripheral effect while X cells do not. Low and high spatial frequencies were detected in the presence of a flickering (7 Hz) or steady (70 Hz) surround. Surround frequency had no effect upon reaction times to 2.0 cpd but the flickering surround increased reaction times to 0.25 cpd. These results indicate that, in cats, rapid detection of low spatial frequencies is by Y cells and slower detection of high spatial frequencies is by X cells.

Behavioral determination of critical flicker fusion in dogs

Steady-state critical flicker-fusion frequencies (CFFs) were determined for four beagle dogs using the psychophysical technique of conditioned suppression. The CFFs obtained demonstrated that the dog can discriminate flicker at much faster rates than has been suggested by ERG data. In addition, dog rods may support the discrimination of flicker at much higher rates than can human rods. An indication of a psychophysical rod-cone break occurred at a luminance level intermediate to those previously reported in ERG CFF studies. This level is similar to that in the cat, but much higher than that in man. The high CFFs provide the first psychophysical evidence of a well-developed functioning cone system in the dog.

Photopic spectral sensitivity of the cat

1. The psychophysical spectral sensitivity of cats was assessed using a two-choice visual discrimination task by determining increment thresholds and critical flicker frequency on white and chromatic backgrounds. 2. For large increments, on 0.0, 0.3 and 3.0 cd/m2 white backgrounds, the cats were most sensitive to 497 nm indicating that these backgrounds are scotopic. On 30 and 300 cd/m2 white backgrounds, the cats were most sensitive to about 454 and 561 nm indicating that these backgrounds are photopic. Sensitivity to intermediate wave-lengths indicated independent action of 'blue' and 'green' cones. 3. For large increments, thresholds on photopic yellow and magenta backgrounds indicated the additive influence of 'blue' and 'green' cones. 4. Spectral sensitivity functions obtained with a critical flicker frequency criterion of 10 Hz on a 30 cd/m2 white background reflected only the activity of the 'green' cone while at 20 Hz the function reflected an additive contribution of both 'blue' and 'green' cones. 5. For small increments, on a 30 cd/m2 white or 96 cd/m2 orange background, sensitivity reflected only the activity of the 'green' cone. 6. The cat's photopic spectral sensitivity is influenced by the psychophysical test upon which it is based in a manner that is similar to what has been found for other vertebrates. No evidence was found for a 500 nm mechanism active at photopic levels.

Increment thresholds in normal and binocularly deprived cats

Increment thresholds on a white background were determined for normal and binocularly deprived (BD) cats over a wide luminance range. Threshold vs intensity curves had a slope of unity for both groups but the increment threshold (delta I/I) for normal cats was 0.09 while increment threshold for BD cats was 0.60. Absolute threshold was reliably better in normal cats. the deficit of BD cats is considered a potential result of their abnormal cortical physiology and/or abnormal lateral geniculate physiology.

Critical flicker frequency in monocularly deprived cats

Critical flicker frequency (CFF) was determined for both eyes of long-term monocularly deprived (MD) cats over a wide luminance range. Although MD cats could discriminate flicker before and after lid opening, CFF of the deprived eye (30 Hz) was much lower than CFF of the non-deprived eye (40 Hz) and the CFF of the non-deprived eye was lower than a normal cat's monocular CFF (58 Hz). The CFF deficit of the deprived eye became less pronounced at low luminance levels. The observation (and magnitude) of a CFF deficit for the deprived eye is compatible with the reports of a Y-cell loss in LGNd. The CFF deficit of the non-deprived eye has no obvious explanation.

Critical flicker fusion in Siamese cats

Critical flicker fusion was determined over a wide luminance range for six Siamese and four normal cats. The Siamese cats had the lowest CFF at all luminance levels when compared to normal and binocularly deprived (BD) cats. The Siamese cat's inferior temporal resolution is most likely due to their profound y-cell loss because (1) CFF is proportional to y-cell population across normal, BD, and Siamese cats; and (2) unlike BD cats, the visual cortex of Siamese cats is comparatively normal. The implication of this finding for the CFF of dark-reared cats and normal cats viewing a stimulus which does not stimulate y-cell is discussed.

Acuity, luminance, and monocular deprivation in the cat

Visual acuity was determined for both eyes of long-term monocular-deprived cats over a wide luminance range. The influence of luminance on the rate of pattern vision recovery was also examined. Unlike strabismic humans and cats, the acuity deficit of monocularly deprived cats is not luminance dependent. This acuity is much worse at all luminance levels in the deprived eye. Likewise, initial testing of the deprived eye at low luminance levels does not facilitate recovery of pattern vision. Therefore, monocular lid fusion results in a visual deficit that differs from the effects of strabismus but resembles the effects of anisometropia in man.