Theory and measurement of ocular chromatic aberration

Wide-field optical eye models for emmetropic and myopic eyes

Ocular wavefront aberrations are used to describe retinal image formation in the study and modeling of foveal and peripheral visual functions and visual development. However, classical eye models generate aberration structures that generally do not resemble those of actual eyes, and simplifications such as rotationally symmetric and coaxial surfaces limit the usefulness of many modern eye models. Drawing on wide-field ocular wavefront aberrations measured previously by five laboratories, 28 emmetropic (-0.50 to +0.50 D) and 20 myopic (-1.50 to -4.50 D) individual optical eye models were reverse-engineered by optical design ray-tracing software. This involved an error function that manipulated 27 anatomical parameters, such as curvatures, asphericities, thicknesses, tilts, and translations-constrained within anatomical limits-to drive the output aberrations of each model to agree with the input (measured) aberrations. From those resultant anatomical parameters, three representative eye models were also defined: an ideal emmetropic eye with minimal aberrations (0.00 D), as well as a typical emmetropic eye (-0.02 D) and myopic eye (-2.75 D). The cohorts and individual models are presented and evaluated in terms of output aberrations and established population expectations, such as Seidel aberration theory and ocular chromatic aberrations. Presented applications of the models include the effect of dual focus contact lenses on peripheral optical quality, the comparison of ophthalmic correction modalities, and the projection of object space across the retina during accommodation.

Telephoto achromatic camera based on optical-digital co-design

Due to the difficulty of correcting chromatic aberration (CA) in telephoto cameras, recent studies have combined image algorithms with simple optical structures, such as single-spherical lenses, for high-quality photography, moving away from complex optics. However, this approach often struggles to comprehensively address compounded issues arising from optical aberrations of simple optical systems, including defocus blur and multi-channel misalignment. To tackle this challenge, this manuscript presents an approach for developing a telephoto imaging system by leveraging the distinct characteristics of axial and lateral chromatic aberrations (ACA, LCA) over the visible spectrum. The optical design is limited to a specific wavelength range to preserve high-frequency information of the green channel. A cross-channel fitting method is presented to suppress the LCA. Subsequently, the powerful capabilities of deep learning are utilized to correct ACA, defocus blur, and other residual optical aberrations. Simulation experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in mitigating the CA inherent in telephoto systems, thereby delivering high-quality imaging results over the whole visible waveband.

The visual benefits of correcting longitudinal and transverse chromatic aberration

We describe a system-the Binocular Varichrome and Accommodation Measurement System-that can be used to measure and correct the eye's longitudinal and transverse chromatic aberration (LCA and TCA) and to perform vision tests with custom corrections. We used the system to investigate how LCA and TCA affect visual performance. Specifically, we studied the effects of LCA and TCA on visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and chromostereopsis. LCA exhibited inter subject variability but followed expected trends compared with previous reports. TCA at the fovea was variable between individuals but with a tendency for the shift at shorter wavelengths to be more temporalward in the visual field in each eye. We found that TCA was generally greater when LCA was corrected. For visual acuity, we found that a measurable benefit was realized only with both LCA and TCA correction unless the TCA was low. For contrast sensitivity, we found that the best sensitivity to a 10-cycle/degree polychromatic grating was attained when LCA and TCA were corrected. Finally, we found that the primary cause of chromostereopsis is the TCA of the eyes.

Motion adaptation improves acuity (but perceived size doesn't matter)

Recognition acuity—the minimum size of a high-contrast object that allows us to recognize it—is limited by optical and neural elements of the eye and by processing within the visual cortex. The perceived size of objects can be changed by motion-adaptation. Viewing receding or looming motion makes subsequently viewed stimuli appear to grow or shrink, respectively. It has been reported that resulting changes in perceived size impact recognition acuity. We set out to determine if such acuity changes are reliable and what drives this phenomenon. We measured the effect of adaptation to receding and looming motion on acuity for crowded tumbling-T stimuli (). We quantified the role of crowding, individuals’ susceptibility to motion-adaptation, and potentially confounding effects of pupil size and eye movements. Adaptation to receding motion made targets appear larger and improved acuity (–0.037 logMAR). Although adaptation to looming motion made targets appear smaller, it induced not the expected decrease in acuity but a modest acuity improvement (–0.018 logMAR). Further, each observer's magnitude of acuity change was not correlated with their individual perceived-size change following adaptation. Finally, we found no evidence that adaptation-induced acuity gains were related to crowding, fixation stability, or pupil size. Adaptation to motion modestly enhances visual acuity, but unintuitively, this is dissociated from perceived size. Ruling out fixation and pupillary behavior, we suggest that motion adaptation may improve acuity via incidental effects on sensitivity—akin to those arising from blur adaptation—which shift sensitivity to higher spatial frequency-tuned channels.

Visual Axis and Stiles-Crawford Effect Peak Show a Positional Correlation in Normal Eyes: A Cohort Study

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to locate the visual axis and evaluate its correlation with the Stiles-Crawford effect (SCE) peak.

Methods

Ten young, healthy individuals (20 eyes) were enrolled. An optical system was developed to locate the visual axis and measure SCE. To locate the visual axis, 2 small laser spots at 450 nm and 680 nm were co-aligned and delivered to the retina. The participants were asked to move a translatable pinhole until these spots were perceived to overlap each other. The same system assessed SCE at 680 nm using a bipartite, 2-channel (reference and test) Maxwellian-view optical system. The peak positions were estimated using a two-dimensional Gaussian fitting function and correlated with the visual axis positions.

Results

Both the visual axis (x = 0.24 ± 0.35 mm, y = -0.16 ± 0.34 mm) and the SCE peak (x = 0.27 ± 0.35 mm, y = -0.15 ± 0.31 mm) showed intersubject variability among the cohort. The SCE peak positions were highly correlated in both the horizontal and vertical meridians to the visual axes (R2 = 0.98 and 0.96 for the x and y coordinates, respectively). Nine of the 10 participants demonstrated mirror symmetry for the coordinates of the visual axis and the SCE peak between the eyes (R2 = 0.71 for the visual axis and 0.76 for the SCE peak).

Conclusions

The visual axis and SCE peak locations varied among the participants; however, they were highly correlated with each other for each individual. These findings suggest a potential mechanism underlying the foveal cone photoreceptor alignment.

Effect of decentration, tilt and rotation on the optical quality of various toric intraocular lens designs: a numerical and experimental study

Toric intraocular lenses (T-IOLs) may lose their optical quality if they are not correctly positioned inside the capsular bag once implanted. In this work, T-IOLs with cylinder powers of +1.50, +4.50 and +7.50 D and differing degrees of spherical aberration have been designed, manufactured and tested in vitro using a commercial optical bench that complies with the requirements of standard ISO 11979-2. Moreover, the effect of tilt and rotation on optical quality was assessed by means of numerical ray tracing on an astigmatic eye model, while the effect of decentration was evaluated numerically and experimentally.

Measurement of Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration in the Last Crystalline Lens Surface Using Hartmann Test and Purkinje Images

Research has shown that longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) of the human eye is generated across all of the eye's optical surfaces. However, it may not be necessary to measure the LCA from the first surface of the cornea to the retina, as it is known that most of the changes that can modify the path of light occur from the first surface of the cornea to the last surface of the crystalline lens. This investigation presents the study of an objective technique that allows the measurement of longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) on the last crystalline lens surface by developing a pulse width wavefront system using a Hartmann test, Purkinje image, and Zernike polynomial. A blue pulse (440-480 nm) and a red pulse (580-640 nm) were used to generate a pattern of spots in the human eye. This pattern generated on the posterior surface of the crystalline lens of the human eye allows the reconstruction of the wavefront via a modal method with Zernike polynomials. Once the wavefront is reconstructed, Zernike coefficients can be used to quantify the LCA. The methodology and objective measurements of the magnitude of the longitudinal chromatic aberration of five test subjects are explained in this article.

Understanding In Vivo Chromatic Aberrations in Pseudophakic Eyes Using on Bench and Computational Approaches

Diffractive multifocal intraocular lenses (IOLs) modulate chromatic aberration and reduce it at certain distances due to interactions between the refractive and diffractive chromatic components. However, the extent to which computer modeling and on bench measurements of IOL chromatic aberration translate to chromatic aberration in patients implanted with these multifocal IOLs (MIOLs) is not yet fully understood. In this study, we compare the chromatic difference of focus and longitudinal chromatic aberrations in pseudophakic patients implanted with different IOL designs (monofocal and trifocal IOLs) and materials (hydrophobic and hydrophilic), and compared them with predictions from computer eye models and on bench measurements with the same IOLs. Patient data consisted of results from 63 pseudophakic eyes reported in four different studies and obtained psychophysically in the visual testing channel of a custom-developed polychromatic adaptive optics system. Computational predictions were obtained using ray tracing on computer eye models, and modulation transfer function (MTF) on bench measurements on physical eye models. We found that LCA (in vivo/simulated) for far vision was 1.37 ± 0.08 D/1.19 D for monofocal hydrophobic, 1.21 ± 0.08 D/0.88 D for monofocal hydrophilic, 0.99 ± 0.06 D/1.19 D for MIOL hydrophobic, and 0.82 ± 0.05 D/0.88 D for MIOL hydrophilic. For intermediate and near vision, LCA (in vivo/simulated) was 0.67 ± 0.10 D/0.75 D and 0.23 ± 0.08 D/0.19 D for MIOL hydrophobic and 0.27 ± 0.15 D/0.38 D and 0.15 ± 0.15 D/−0.13 D for MIOL hydrophilic, respectively. In conclusion, computational ray tracing and on bench measurements allowed for evaluating in vivo chromatic aberration with different materials and designs for multifocal diffractive intraocular lenses.

Matching convolved images to optically blurred images on the retina

Convolved images are often used to simulate the effect of ocular aberrations on image quality, where the retinal image is simulated by convolving the stimulus with the point spread function derived from the subject's aberrations. However, some studies have shown that convolved images are perceived far more degraded than the same image blurred with optical defocus. We hypothesized that the positive interactions between the monochromatic and chromatic aberrations in the eye are lost in the convolution process. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated optical and visual quality with natural optics and with convolved images (on-bench, computer simulations, and visual acuity [VA] in subjects) using a polychromatic adaptive optics system with monochromatic (555 nm) and polychromatic light (WL) illumination. The subject's aberrations were measured using a Hartmann Shack system and were used to convolve the visual stimuli, using Fourier optics. The convolved images were seen through corrected optics. VA with convolved stimuli was lower than VA through natural aberrations, particularly in WL (by 26% in WL). Our results suggest that the systematic decrease in visual performance with visual acuity and retinal image quality by simulation with convolved stimuli appears to be primarily associated with a lack of favorable interaction between chromatic and monochromatic aberrations in the eye.

Determination of Optic Axes by Corneal Topography among Italian, Brazilian, and Chinese Populations

This study aims to describe a new universal method to identify the relative three-dimensional directions of visual, pupillary, and optical axes of the eye and the angles between them using topography elevation data. The method was validated in a large clinical cohort, and ethnical differences were recorded. Topography elevation data were collected from 1992 normal eyes of 966 healthy participants in Italy, Brazil, and China. The three main axes were defined as follows: optical axis (OA) was defined as the optimal path of light that passes through the ocular system without refraction. The pupillary axis (PA) line was defined using X and Y coordinates of the pupil centre with the chamber depth, in addition to the centre of a sphere fitted to the central 3 mm diameter of the cornea. The visual axis (VA) was taken by its best approximation, the coaxially sighted corneal light reflex. The alpha angle was measured between the VA and OA, and the kappa angle between the VA and PA. The average values of kappa and alpha angles were 3.41 ± 2.84 and 6.04 ± 2.43 in the Italian population, 2.6 ± 1.53 and 5.87 ± 2.3 in the Brazilian population, and 2.09 ± 1.22 and 3.85 ± 1.48 in the Chinese population.

Vision is protected against blue defocus

Due to chromatic aberration, blue images are defocused when the eye is focused to the middle of the visible spectrum, yet we normally are not aware of chromatic blur. The eye suffers from monochromatic aberrations which degrade the optical quality of all images projected on the retina. The combination of monochromatic and chromatic aberrations is not additive and these aberrations may interact to improve image quality. Using Adaptive Optics, we investigated the optical and visual effects of correcting monochromatic aberrations when viewing polychromatic grayscale, green, and blue images. Correcting the eye’s monochromatic aberrations improved optical quality of the focused green images and degraded the optical quality of defocused blue images, particularly in eyes with higher amounts of monochromatic aberrations. Perceptual judgments of image quality tracked the optical findings, but the perceptual impact of the monochromatic aberrations correction was smaller than the optical predictions. The visual system appears to be adapted to the blur produced by the native monochromatic aberrations, and possibly to defocus in blue.

Genetic variability of the sws1 cone opsin gene among New World monkeys

Vision is a major sense for Primates and the ability to perceive colors has great importance for the species ecology and behavior. Visual processing begins with the activation of the visual opsins in the retina, and the spectral absorption peaks are highly variable among species. In most Primates, LWS/MWS opsins are responsible for sensitivity to long/middle wavelengths within the visible light spectrum, and SWS1 opsins provide sensitivity to short wavelengths, in the violet region of the spectrum. In this study, we aimed to investigate the genetic variation on the sws1 opsin gene of New World monkeys (NWM) and search for amino acid substitutions that might be associated with the different color vision phenotypes described for a few species. We sequenced the exon 1 of the sws1 opsin gene of seven species from the families Callitrichidae, Cebidae, and Atelidae, and searched for variation at the spectral tuning sites 46, 49, 52, 86, 90, 93, 114, 116, and 118. Among the known spectral tuning sites, only residue 114 was variable. To investigate whether other residues have a functional role in the SWS1 absorption peak, we performed computational modeling of wild-type SWS1 and mutants A50I and A50V, found naturally among the species investigated. Although in silico analysis did not show any visible effect caused by these substitutions, it is possible that interactions of residue 50 with other sites might have some effect in the spectral shifts in the order of ~14 nm, found among the NWM. We also performed phylogenetic reconstruction of the sws1 gene, which partially recovered the species phylogeny. Further studies will be important to uncover the mutations responsible for the phenotypic variability of the SWS1 of NWM, and how spectral tuning may be associated with specific ecological features such as preferred food items and habitat use.

Testing the effect of ocular aberrations in the perceived transverse chromatic aberration

We have measured the ocular transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) in 11 subjects using 2D-two-color Vernier alignment, for two pupil diameters, in a polychromatic adaptive optics (AO) system. TCA measurements were performed for two pupil diameters: for a small pupil (2-mm), referred to as 'optical TCA' (oTCA), and for a large pupil (6-mm), referred to 'perceived TCA' (pTCA). Also, the TCA was measured through both natural aberrations (HOAs) and AO-corrected aberrations. Computer simulations of pTCA incorporated longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA), the patient's HOAs measured with Hartmann-Shack, and the Stiles-Crawford effect (SCE), measured objectively by laser ray tracing. The oTCA and the simulated pTCA (no aberrations) were shifted nasally 1.20 arcmin and 1.40 arcmin respectively. The experimental pTCA (-0.27 arcmin horizontally and -0.62 vertically) was well predicted (81%) by simulations when both the individual HOAs and SCE were considered. Both HOAs and SCE interact with oTCA, reducing it in magnitude and changing its orientation. The results indicate that estimations of polychromatic image quality should incorporate patient's specific data of HOAs, LCA, TCA & SCE.

Evaluation of the optical performance for aspheric intraocular lenses in relation with tilt and decenter errors

PURPOSE

To evaluate and compare the effect of misalignment and tilt on the optical performance of different aspheric intraocular lens (IOL) designs.

METHODS

Three aspheric IOLs with a different quantity of spherical aberration (SA) have been designed and the effect of IOL misalignment and tilt on the imaging quality of an eye model has been numerically assessed using a commercial optical design software. The prototypes have been manufactured by lathe turning and tested in vitro using the same optical bench (PMTF, Lambda-X) that complies with International Organization for Standardization standard 11979-2 requirements. Image quality was evaluated from the modulation transfer functions (MTFs), through-focus modulation transfer functions (TF-MTFs), root mean square (RMS) values of defocus, astigmatism and coma, and images of the United States Air Force (USAF) target were taken. A comparison with the optical performance of spherical IOLs has also been performed.

RESULTS

Intraocular lens misalignment and tilt increased wavefront aberrations; the effect of misalignment on root mean square (RMS) astigmatism and coma was positively correlated with the spherical aberration of the IOL. Aberration-free IOLs showed the highest MTF for all misalignment values and for IOLs with negative SA correction the MTF decays below 0.43 when they are decentered 0.50 mm.

CONCLUSIONS

Aspherical IOLs are more sensitive than spherical IOLs to misalignment or tilt, depending on their SA correction. The optical degradation caused by IOL misalignment had a greater effect on IOL designs with a higher amount of negative spherical aberration. In contrast, the effect of tilt on the optical performance was less sensitive to the IOL design.

Effect of cone spectral topography on chromatic detection sensitivity

The spatial and spectral topography of the cone mosaic set the limits for detection and discrimination of chromatic sinewave gratings. Here, we sought to compare the spatial characteristics of mechanisms mediating hue perception against those mediating chromatic detection in individuals with known spectral topography and with optical aberrations removed with adaptive optics. Chromatic detection sensitivity in general exceeded previous measurements and decreased monotonically for increasingly skewed cone spectral compositions. The spatial grain of hue perception was significantly coarser than chromatic detection, consistent with separate neural mechanisms for color vision operating at different spatial scales.

Wide-vergence, multi-spectral adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope with diffraction-limited illumination and collection

Visualizing and assessing the function of microscopic retinal structures in the human eye is a challenging task that has been greatly facilitated by ophthalmic adaptive optics (AO). Yet, as AO imaging systems advance in functionality by employing multiple spectral channels and larger vergence ranges, achieving optimal resolution and signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) becomes difficult and is often compromised. While current-generation AO retinal imaging systems have demonstrated excellent, near diffraction-limited imaging performance over wide vergence and spectral ranges, a full theoretical and experimental analysis of an AOSLO that includes both the light delivery and collection optics has not been done, and neither has the effects of extending wavefront correction from one wavelength to imaging performance in different spectral channels. Here, we report a methodology and system design for simultaneously achieving diffraction-limited performance in both the illumination and collection paths for a wide-vergence, multi-spectral AO scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO) over a 1.2 diopter vergence range while correcting the wavefront in a separate wavelength. To validate the design, an AOSLO was constructed to have three imaging channels spanning different wavelength ranges (543 ± 11 nm, 680 ± 11 nm, and 840 ± 6 nm, respectively) and one near-infrared wavefront sensing channel (940 ± 5 nm). The AOSLO optics and their alignment were determined via simulations in optical and optomechanical design software and then experimentally verified by measuring the AOSLO's illumination and collection point spread functions (PSF) for each channel using a phase retrieval technique. The collection efficiency was then measured for each channel as a function of confocal pinhole size when imaging a model eye achieving near-theoretical performance. Imaging results from healthy human adult volunteers demonstrate the system's ability to resolve the foveal cone mosaic in all three imaging channels despite a wide spectral separation between the wavefront sensing and imaging channels.

Impact of longitudinal chromatic aberration on through-focus visual acuity

An enhanced adaptive optics visual simulator (AOVS) was used to study the impact of chromatic aberration on vision. In particular, through-focus visual acuity (VA) was measured in four subjects under three longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) conditions: natural LCA, compensated LCA and doubled LCA. Ray-tracing simulations using a chromatic eye model were also performed for a better understanding of experimental results. Simulations predicted the optical quality of the retinal images and VA by applying a semi-empirical formula. Experimental and ray tracing results showed a significant agreement in the natural LCA case (R² = 0.92). Modifying the LCA caused an impairment in the predictability of the results, with decreasing correlations between experiment and simulations (compensated LCA, R² = 0.84; doubled LCA, R² = 0.59). VA under modified LCA was systematically overestimated by the model around the best focus position. The results provided useful information on how LCA manipulation affects the depth of focus. Decreased capability of the model to predict VA in modified LCA conditions suggests that neural adaptation may play a role.

Ray tracing 3D spectral scenes through human optics models

Scientists and engineers have created computations and made measurements that characterize the first steps of seeing. ISETBio software integrates such computations and data into an open-source software package. The initial ISETBio implementations modeled image formation (physiological optics) for planar or distant scenes. The ISET3d software described here extends that implementation, simulating image formation for three-dimensional scenes. The software system relies on a quantitative computer graphics program that ray traces the scene radiance through the physiological optics to the retinal irradiance. We describe and validate the implementation for several model eyes. Then, we use the software to quantify the impact of several physiological optics parameters on three-dimensional image formation. ISET3d is integrated with ISETBio, making it straightforward to convert the retinal irradiance into cone excitations. These methods help the user compute the predictions of optics models for a wide range of spatially rich three-dimensional scenes. They can also be used to evaluate the impact of nearby visual occlusion, the information available to binocular vision, or the retinal images expected from near-field and augmented reality displays.

Eye tracking-based estimation and compensation of chromatic offsets for multi-wavelength retinal microstimulation with foveal cone precision

Multi-wavelength ophthalmic imaging and stimulation of photoreceptor cells require consideration of chromatic dispersion of the eye, manifesting in longitudinal and transverse chromatic aberrations. Contemporary image-based techniques to measure and correct transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) and the resulting transverse chromatic offset (TCO) in an adaptive optics retinal imaging system are precise but lack compensation of small but significant shifts in eye position occurring during in vivo testing. Here, we present a method that requires only a single measurement of TCO during controlled movements of the eye to map retinal chromatic image shifts to the image space of a pupil camera. After such calibration, TCO can be compensated by continuously monitoring eye position during experimentation and by interpolating correction vectors from a linear fit to the calibration data. The average change rate of TCO per head shift and the correlation between Kappa and the individual foveal TCA are close to the expectations based on a chromatic eye model. Our solution enables continuous compensation of TCO with high spatial precision and avoids high light intensities required for re-measuring TCO after eye position changes, which is necessary for foveal cone-targeted psychophysical experimentation.

Image Quality Metric Derived Refractions Predicted to Improve Visual Acuity Beyond Habitual Refraction for Patients With Down Syndrome

Purpose

To determine which optimized image quality metric (IQM) refractions provide the best predicted visual acuity (VA).

Methods

Autorefraction (AR), habitual refraction (spectacles, n = 23; unaided, n = 7), and dilated wavefront error (WFE) were obtained from 30 subjects with Down syndrome (DS; mean age, 30 years; range, 18–50). For each eye, the resultant metric value for 16 IQMs was calculated after >25000 sphero-cylindrical combinations of refraction were added to the measured WFE to generate residual WFE. The single refraction corresponding to each of the 16 optimized IQMs per eye was selected and used to generate acuity charts. Charts also were created for AR, habitual refraction, and a theoretical zeroing of all lower-order aberrations, and grouped into 10 sets with a clear chart in each set. Dilated controls (five observers per set) read each chart until five letters were missed on a high contrast monitor through a unit magnification telescope with a 3 mm pupil aperture. Average letters lost for the five observers for each chart was used to rank the IQMs for each DS eye.

Results

Average acuity for the best performing refraction for all DS eyes was within five letters (0.11 ± 0.05 logMAR) of the clear chart acuity. Optimized IQM refractions had ∼3.5 lines mean improvement from the habitual refraction (0.37 ± 0.22 logMAR, P < 0.001). Three metrics (Visual Strehl Ratio [VSX], VSX computed in frequency domain [VSMTF], and standard deviation of intensity values [STD]) identified refractions that were ranked first, or within 0.09 logMAR of first, in >98% of the eyes.

Conclusions

Optimized IQM refraction is predicted to improve VA in DS eyes based on control observers reading simulated charts.

Translational Relevance

Refractions identified through optimization of IQM may bypass some of the challenges of current refraction techniques for patients with DS. The optimized refractions are predicted to provide better VA compared to their habitual correction.

Transverse chromatic offsets with pupil displacements in the human eye: sources of variability and methods for real-time correction

Tracking SLO systems equipped to perform retinally targeted stimulus delivery typically use near-IR wavelengths for retinal imaging and eye tracking and visible wavelengths for stimulation. The lateral offsets between wavelengths caused by transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) must be carefully corrected in order to deliver targeted stimuli to the correct location on the retina. However, both the magnitude and direction of the TCA offset is dependent on the position of the eye's pupil relative to the incoming beam, and thus can change dynamically within an experimental session without proper control of the pupil position. The goals of this study were twofold: 1) To assess sources of variability in TCA alignments as a function of pupil displacements in an SLO and 2) To demonstrate a novel method for real-time correction of chromatic offsets. To summarize, we found substantial between- and within-subject variability in TCA in the presence of monochromatic aberrations. When adaptive optics was used to fully correct for monochromatic aberrations, variability both within and between observers was minimized. In a second experiment, we demonstrate that pupil tracking can be used to update stimulus delivery in the SLO in real time to correct for variability in chromatic offsets with pupil displacements.

Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration and Polychromatic Image Quality Metrics of Intraocular Lenses

PURPOSE

To measure longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) of various intraocular lenses (IOLs) and to assess LCA effects on polychromatic image quality with a focus on multifocal IOL designs.

METHODS

The LCA values of four multifocal IOL models (three diffractive models: AT LARA 829MP and AT LISA 809M [both from Carl Zeiss Meditec AG, Jena, Germany] and Restor SN6AD1 [Alcon Laboratories, Inc., Fort Worth, TX] and one refractive model [Mini Well Ready; SIFI Medtech, Sant'Antonio, Italy]) were compared with that of their monofocal counterparts. Optical properties were assessed using an optical bench device with spectral filters. LCA was calculated as a difference of a lens power at 480 and 644 nm. The optical quality was evaluated objectively by means of modulation transfer function metrics.

RESULTS

At far, LCA of an aphakic model eye (1.04 diopters [D]) increased with the AT Lisa, Restor, and Mini Well IOLs to 1.40, 1.91, and 1.27 D, respectively, but decreased to 0.78 D with the AT Lara IOL. The AT Lisa and Restor IOLs showed comparable results with their monofocal platforms. A near-focus LCA decreased only in the diffractive IOLs. At far, the polychromatic modulation transfer function was reduced in all IOLs, but LCA effects were attenuated at near.

CONCLUSIONS

Multifocal IOLs and their monofocal counterparts show similar material dispersion. Multifocal diffractive IOLs proved effective in reducing LCA, but the efficiency of the LCA correction differed depending on the optical design. LCA adversely affects the polychromatic image quality. [J Refract Surg. 2018;34(12):832-838.].

Long eye relief fundus camera and fixation target with partial correction of ocular longitudinal chromatic aberration

A combined 32° full field of view refractive fundus camera and fixation target with a -20 to +10 diopter sphere correction range is described and demonstrated. The optical setup partially corrects the average longitudinal chromatic aberration and spherical aberration of the human eye, while providing a long eye relief to allow integration with reflective adaptive optics ophthalmoscopes, as a viewfinder. The fundus camera operates with 940 nm light, using a maximum 2.9 mm diameter imaging pupil at the eye. The fixation target uses a light projector capable of delivering red, green and/or blue spatially and temporally modulated stimuli to the retina. The design and performance of each sub-system are discussed, and retinal imaging at various wavelengths is demonstrated.

Creating correct blur and its effect on accommodation

Blur occurs naturally when the eye is focused at one distance and an object is presented at another distance. Computer-graphics engineers and vision scientists often wish to create display images that reproduce such depth-dependent blur, but their methods are incorrect for that purpose. They take into account the scene geometry, pupil size, and focal distances, but do not properly take into account the optical aberrations of the human eye. We developed a method that, by incorporating the viewer's optics, yields displayed images that produce retinal images close to the ones that occur in natural viewing. We concentrated on the effects of defocus, chromatic aberration, astigmatism, and spherical aberration and evaluated their effectiveness by conducting experiments in which we attempted to drive the eye's focusing response (accommodation) through the rendering of these aberrations. We found that accommodation is not driven at all by conventional rendering methods, but that it is driven surprisingly quickly and accurately by our method with defocus and chromatic aberration incorporated. We found some effect of astigmatism but none of spherical aberration. We discuss how the rendering approach can be used in vision science experiments and in the development of ophthalmic/optometric devices and augmented- and virtual-reality displays.

Improving High-Throughput Phenotyping Using Fusion of Close-Range Hyperspectral Camera and Low-Cost Depth Sensor

Hyperspectral sensors, especially the close-range hyperspectral camera, have been widely introduced to detect biological processes of plants in the high-throughput phenotyping platform, to support the identification of biotic and abiotic stress reactions at an early stage. However, the complex geometry of plants and their interaction with the illumination, severely affects the spectral information obtained. Furthermore, plant structure, leaf area, and leaf inclination distribution are critical indexes which have been widely used in multiple plant models. Therefore, the process of combination between hyperspectral images and 3D point clouds is a promising approach to solve these problems and improve the high-throughput phenotyping technique. We proposed a novel approach fusing a low-cost depth sensor and a close-range hyperspectral camera, which extended hyperspectral camera ability with 3D information as a potential tool for high-throughput phenotyping. An exemplary new calibration and analysis method was shown in soybean leaf experiments. The results showed that a 0.99 pixel resolution for the hyperspectral camera and a 3.3 millimeter accuracy for the depth sensor, could be achieved in a controlled environment using the method proposed in this paper. We also discussed the new capabilities gained using this new method, to quantify and model the effects of plant geometry and sensor configuration. The possibility of 3D reflectance models can be used to minimize the geometry-related effects in hyperspectral images, and to significantly improve high-throughput phenotyping. Overall results of this research, indicated that the proposed method provided more accurate spatial and spectral plant information, which helped to enhance the precision of biological processes in high-throughput phenotyping.

Positions of Ocular Geometrical and Visual Axes in Brazilian, Chinese and Italian Populations

PURPOSE

To identify the relative positions of geometrical and visual axes of the eye and present a method to locate the visual center when the geometrical axis is taken as a reference.

METHODS

Topography elevation data was collected using a Pentacam HR ® topographer from 2040 normal eyes of 1020 healthy participants in Brazil, China and Italy. A three-dimensional, rotation algorithm, a first-order Zernike polynomial fit and a nonlinear least-squares error function was used within an optimization function to locate the geometrical axis and the visual center of each eye.

RESULTS

The right eyes of participants were significantly more tilted than left eyes throughout the topography scanning process (p < 0.001). The visual centers were always located in the nasal-superior quadrant, although the visual centers of fellow eyes were not symmetrically located. Mean distances between the visual center and the geometrical center in right eyes were 0.8 ± 0.29 mm, 0.56 ± 0.18 mm and 0.91 ± 0.34 mm among Brazilian, Chinese and Italian participants, respectively, and located at angular positions of 38.7 ± 24.5°, 23.0 ± 29.8° and 23.1 ± 28.1° from the nasal side. However, in left eyes, mean distances were 0.76 ± 0.33 mm, 0.45 ± 0.12 mm and 0.75 ± 0.33 mm at polar angles from the nasal side of 59.3 ± 29.0°, 50.6 ± 44.5° and 61.8 ± 34.1°, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Fellow eyes do not perform similarly during the fixation process, with right eyes tending to tilt more than left eyes, and the visual centers of the fellow eyes positioned differently relative to the geometrical centers.

Symmetric visual response to positive and negative induced spherical defocus under monochromatic light conditions

The purpose of the study was to investigate the sign-dependent response to real and simulated spherical defocus on the visual acuity under monochromatic light conditions. The investigation included 15 myopic participants with a mean spherical equivalent error of -2.98 ± 2.17 D. Visual acuity (VA) was tested with and without spherical defocus using the source method (simulated defocus) and the observer method (lens-induced defocus) in a range of ±3.0 D in 1.0 D steps. VA was assessed using Landolt C's, while the threshold was determined with an adaptive staircase procedure. Monochromatic light conditions were achieved using band pass filters with a wavelength of 450 ± 2 nm, 530 ± 2 nm and 630 ± 2 nm. Results showed that the reduction of VA was significantly different under blue lighting conditions, when compared to the green and red light conditions. No significant difference in the reduction of the VA was found between the positive and the negative sign of defocus for all lighting conditions. The agreement for the VA between the source and observer method was significantly dependent on the wavelength as well as on the level of defocus. To conclude, under monochromatic light conditions, myopes show a symmetric sign-dependency regarding the influence of spherical defocus on visual acuity. The observed results indicate that the human visual system is capable of integrating the chromatic differences in refraction to distinguish between the signs of defocus.

Visual pigments in a palaeognath bird, the emu Dromaius novaehollandiae: implications for spectral sensitivity and the origin of ultraviolet vision

A comprehensive description of the spectral characteristics of retinal photoreceptors in palaeognaths is lacking. Moreover, controversy exists with respect to the spectral sensitivity of the short-wavelength-sensitive-1 (SWS1) opsin-based visual pigment expressed in one type of single cone: previous microspectrophotometric (MSP) measurements in the ostrich (Struthio camelus) suggested a violet-sensitive (VS) SWS1 pigment, but all palaeognath SWS1 opsin sequences obtained to date (including the ostrich) imply that the visual pigment is ultraviolet-sensitive (UVS). In this study, MSP was used to measure the spectral properties of visual pigments and oil droplets in the retinal photoreceptors of the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Results show that the emu resembles most other bird species in possessing four spectrally distinct single cones, as well as double cones and rods. Four cone and a single rod opsin are expressed, each an orthologue of a previously identified pigment. The SWS1 pigment is clearly UVS (wavelength of maximum absorbance [λmax] = 376 nm), with key tuning sites (Phe86 and Cys90) consistent with other vertebrate UVS SWS1 pigments. Palaeognaths would appear, therefore, to have UVS SWS1 pigments. As they are considered to be basal in avian evolution, this suggests that UVS is the most likely ancestral state for birds. The functional significance of a dedicated UVS cone type in the emu is discussed.

Temporal multiplexing to simulate multifocal intraocular lenses: theoretical considerations

Fast tunable lenses allow an effective design of a portable simultaneous vision simulator (SimVis) of multifocal corrections. A novel method of evaluating the temporal profile of a tunable lens in simulating different multifocal intraocular lenses (M-IOLs) is presented. The proposed method involves the characteristic fitting of the through-focus (TF) optical quality of the multifocal component of a given M-IOL to a linear combination of TF optical quality of monofocal lenses viable with a tunable lens. Three different types of M-IOL designs are tested, namely: segmented refractive, diffractive and refractive extended depth of focus. The metric used for the optical evaluation of the temporal profile is the visual Strehl (VS) ratio. It is shown that the time profiles generated with the VS ratio as a metric in SimVis resulted in TF VS ratio and TF simulated images that closely matched the TF VS ratio and TF simulated images predicted with the M-IOL. The effects of temporal sampling, varying pupil size, monochromatic aberrations, longitudinal chromatic aberrations and temporal dynamics on SimVis are discussed.

Transverse chromatic aberration across the visual field of the human eye

The purpose of this study was to measure the transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) across the visual field of the human eye objectively. TCA was measured at horizontal and vertical field angles out to ±15° from foveal fixation in the right eye of four subjects. Interleaved retinal images were taken at wavelengths 543 nm and 842 nm in an adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope (AOSLO). To obtain true measures of the human eye's TCA, the contributions of the AOSLO system's TCA were measured using an on-axis aligned model eye and subtracted from the ocular data. The increase in TCA was found to be linear with eccentricity, with an average slope of 0.21 arcmin/degree of visual field angle (corresponding to 0.41 arcmin/degree for 430 nm to 770 nm). The absolute magnitude of ocular TCA varied between subjects, but was similar to the resolution acuity at 10° in the nasal visual field, encompassing three to four cones. Therefore, TCA can be visually significant. Furthermore, for high-resolution imaging applications, whether visualizing or stimulating cellular features in the retina, it is important to consider the lateral displacements between wavelengths and the variation in blur over the visual field.

Method of locating the visual axis objectively

PURPOSE

To locate the visual axis of the eye objectively.

METHOD

Based on three-beam scanning laser radar microprofilometry, a technique is proposed to objectively locate the visual axis of the eye. The laser beam consists of three components, two of them being shifted relatively to the central one by differing frequencies, filtered in spatially orthogonal directions. The centre of the foveola is defined as the crossing of steepest inclinations determined in the specific beam positions on the trajectory of scanning. The position of the cornea crossing by the visual axis is designated by the optical axis of the measuring instrument.

RESULTS

Nanometer sensitivity was confirmed in a preliminary test.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed technique can be incorporated into any clinical wavefront sensing instrument and can be used for centration-sensitive vision correction, as well as for other instances when knowing the exact position of the fovea is important.

Interaction of aberrations, diffraction, and quantal fluctuations determine the impact of pupil size on visual quality

Our purpose is to develop a computational approach that jointly assesses the impact of stimulus luminance and pupil size on visual quality. We compared traditional optical measures of image quality and those that incorporate the impact of retinal illuminance dependent neural contrast sensitivity. Visually weighted image quality was calculated for a presbyopic model eye with representative levels of chromatic and monochromatic aberrations as pupil diameter was varied from 7 to 1 mm, stimulus luminance varied from 2000 to 0.1  cd/m², and defocus varied from 0 to -2 diopters. The model included the effects of quantal fluctuations on neural contrast sensitivity. We tested the model's predictions for five cycles per degree gratings by measuring contrast sensitivity at 5  cyc/deg. Unlike the traditional Strehl ratio and the visually weighted area under the modulation transfer function, the visual Strehl ratio derived from the optical transfer function was able to capture the combined impact of optics and quantal noise on visual quality. In a well-focused eye, provided retinal illuminance is held constant as pupil size varies, visual image quality scales approximately as the square root of illuminance because of quantum fluctuations, but optimum pupil size is essentially independent of retinal illuminance and quantum fluctuations. Conversely, when stimulus luminance is held constant (and therefore illuminance varies with pupil size), optimum pupil size increases as luminance decreases, thereby compensating partially for increased quantum fluctuations. However, in the presence of -1 and -2 diopters of defocus and at high photopic levels where Weber's law operates, optical aberrations and diffraction dominate image quality and pupil optimization. Similar behavior was observed in human observers viewing sinusoidal gratings. Optimum pupil size increases as stimulus luminance drops for the well-focused eye, and the benefits of small pupils for improving defocused image quality remain throughout the photopic and mesopic ranges. However, restricting pupils to <2  mm will cause significant reductions in the best focus vision at low photopic and mesopic luminances.

Interaction of axial and oblique astigmatism in theoretical and physical eye models

The interaction between oblique and axial astigmatism was investigated analytically (generalized Coddington's equations) and numerically (ray tracing) for a theoretical eye model with a single refracting surface. A linear vector-summation rule for power vector descriptions of axial and oblique astigmatism was found to account for their interaction over the central 90° diameter of the visual field. This linear summation rule was further validated experimentally using a physical eye model measured with a laboratory scanning aberrometer. We then used the linear summation rule to evaluate the relative contributions of axial and oblique astigmatism to the total astigmatism measured across the central visual field. In the central visual field, axial astigmatism dominates because the oblique astigmatism is negligible near the optical axis. At intermediate eccentricities, axial and oblique astigmatism may have equal magnitude but orthogonal axes, which nullifies total astigmatism at two locations in the visual field. At more peripheral locations, oblique astigmatism dominates axial astigmatism, and the axes of total astigmatism become radially oriented, which is a trait of oblique astigmatism. When eccentricity is specified relative to a foveal line-of-sight that is displaced from the eye's optical axis, asymmetries in the visual field map of total astigmatism can be used to locate the optical axis empirically and to estimate the relative contributions of axial and oblique astigmatism at any retinal location, including the fovea. We anticipate the linear summation rule will benefit many topics in vision science (e.g., peripheral correction, emmetropization, meridional amblyopia) by providing improved understanding of how axial and oblique astigmatism interact to produce net astigmatism.

Improving vision by pupil masking

We propose an alternative solution to improve visual quality by spatially modulating the amplitude of light passing into the eye (related to the eye's transmittance), in contrast to traditional correction of the wavefront phase (related to the local refractive power). Numerical simulations show that masking the aberrated areas at the pupil plane should enhance visual function, especially in highly aberrated eyes. This correction could be implemented in practice using customized contact or intraocular lenses.

Eye-tracking technology for real-time monitoring of transverse chromatic aberration

Objective measurements of transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) between two or more wavelengths with an adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope (AOSLO) are very accurate, but frequent measurements are impractical in many experimental settings. Here, we demonstrate a pupil tracker that can accurately measure relative changes in TCA that are caused by small shifts in the pupil relative to the AOSLO imaging beam. Corrections for TCA caused by these shifts improve the measurement of TCA as a function of eccentricity, revealing a strong linear relationship. We propose that pupil tracking be integrated into AOSLO systems, where robust and unobtrusive control of TCA is required.

Euarchontan Opsin Variation Brings New Focus to Primate Origins

Debate on the adaptive origins of primates has long focused on the functional ecology of the primate visual system. For example, it is hypothesized that variable expression of short- (SWS1) and middle-to-long-wavelength sensitive (M/LWS) opsins, which confer color vision, can be used to infer ancestral activity patterns and therefore selective ecological pressures. A problem with this approach is that opsin gene variation is incompletely known in the grandorder Euarchonta, that is, the orders Scandentia (treeshrews), Dermoptera (colugos), and Primates. The ancestral state of primate color vision is therefore uncertain. Here, we report on the genes (OPN1SW and OPN1LW) that encode SWS1 and M/LWS opsins in seven species of treeshrew, including the sole nocturnal scandentian Ptilocercus lowii. In addition, we examined the opsin genes of the Central American woolly opossum (Caluromys derbianus), an enduring ecological analogue in the debate on primate origins. Our results indicate: 1) retention of ultraviolet (UV) visual sensitivity in C. derbianus and a shift from UV to blue spectral sensitivities at the base of Euarchonta; 2) ancient pseudogenization of OPN1SW in the ancestors of P. lowii, but a signature of purifying selection in those of C. derbianus; and, 3) the absence of OPN1LW polymorphism among diurnal treeshrews. These findings suggest functional variation in the color vision of nocturnal mammals and a distinctive visual ecology of early primates, perhaps one that demanded greater spatial resolution under light levels that could support cone-mediated color discrimination.

Effects of intraocular lenses with different diopters on chromatic aberrations in human eye models

BACKGROUND

In this study, the effects of intraocular lenses (IOLs) with different diopters (D) on chromatic aberration were investigated in human eye models, and the influences of the central thickness of IOLs on chromatic aberration were compared.

METHODS

A Liou-Brennan-based IOL eye model was constructed using ZEMAX optical design software. Spherical IOLs with different diopters (AR40e, AMO Company, USA) were implanted; modulation transfer function (MTF) values at 3 mm of pupil diameter and from 0 to out-of-focus blur were collected and graphed.

RESULTS

MTF values, measured at 555 nm of monochromatic light under each spatial frequency, were significantly higher than the values measured at 470 to 650 nm of polychromatic light. The influences of chromatic aberration on MTF values decreased with the increase in IOL diopter when the spatial frequency was ≤12 c/d, while increased effects were observed when the spatial frequency was ≥15 c/d. The MTF values of each IOL eye model were significantly lower than the MTF values of the Liou-Brennan eye models when measured at 555 nm of monochromatic light and at 470 to 650 nm of polychromatic light. The MTF values were also found to be increased with the increase in IOL diopter.

CONCLUSION

With higher diopters of IOLs, the central thickness increased accordingly, which could have created increased chromatic aberration and decreased the retinal image quality. To improve the postoperative visual quality, IOLs with lower chromatic aberration should be selected for patients with short axial lengths.

Effect of induced transverse chromatic aberration on peripheral vision

Transverse chromatic aberration (TCA) is one of the largest optical errors affecting the peripheral image quality in the human eye. However, the effect of chromatic aberrations on our peripheral vision is largely unknown. This study investigates the effect of prism-induced horizontal TCA on vision, in the central as well as in the 20° nasal visual field, for four subjects. Additionally, the magnitude of induced TCA (in minutes of arc) was measured subjectively in the fovea with a Vernier alignment method. During all measurements, the monochromatic optical errors of the eye were compensated for by adaptive optics. The average reduction in foveal grating resolution was about 0.032 ± 0.005  logMAR/arcmin of TCA (mean ± std). For peripheral grating detection, the reduction was 0.057 ± 0.012  logMAR/arcmin. This means that the prismatic effect of highly dispersive spectacles may reduce the ability to detect objects in the peripheral visual field.

Verification of the lack of correlation between age and longitudinal chromatic aberrations of the human eye from the visible to the infrared

Several researchers studied the longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) of the human eye and observed that it does not change due to age. We measured the LCA of 45 subjects' normal right eyes at three distinct wavelengths (561, 690, and 840 nm) using a Hartmann-Shack wavefront aberrometer (HSWA) while consecutively switching between three light sources for wavefront sensing. We confirmed that the LCA of the human eye does not change due to age between 22 and 57 years.

Color difference threshold of chromostereopsis induced by flat display emission

The study of chromostereopsis has gained attention in the backdrop of the use of computer displays in daily life. In this context, we analyze the illusory depth sense using planar color images presented on a computer screen. We determine the color difference threshold required to induce an illusory sense of depth psychometrically using a constant stimuli paradigm. Isoluminant stimuli are presented on a computer screen, which stimuli are aligned along the blue–red line in the computer display CIE xyY color space. Stereo disparity is generated by increasing the color difference between the central and surrounding areas of the stimuli with both areas consisting of random dots on a black background. The observed altering of illusory depth sense, thus also stereo disparity is validated using the “center-of-gravity” model. The induced illusory sense of the depth effect undergoes color reversal upon varying the binocular lateral eye pupil covering conditions (lateral or medial). Analysis of the retinal image point spread function for the display red and blue pixel radiation validates the altering of chromostereopsis retinal disparity achieved by increasing the color difference, and also the chromostereopsis color reversal caused by varying the eye pupil covering conditions.

Longitudinal chromatic aberration of the human eye in the visible and near infrared from wavefront sensing, double-pass and psychophysics

Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration (LCA) influences the optical quality of the eye. However, the reported LCA varies across studies, likely associated to differences in the measurement techniques. We present LCA measured in subjects using wavefront sensing, double-pass retinal images, and psychophysical methods with a custom-developed polychromatic Adaptive Optics system in a wide spectral range (450-950 nm), with control of subjects' natural aberrations. LCA measured psychophysically was significantly higher than that from reflectometric techniques (1.51 D vs 1.00 D in the 488-700 nm range). Ours results indicate that the presence of natural aberrations is not the cause for the discrepancies across techniques.

Asymmetric wavefront aberrations and pupillary shapes induced by electrical stimulation of ciliary nerve in cats measured with compact wavefront aberrometer

To investigate the changes in the wavefront aberrations and pupillary shape in response to electrical stimulation of the branches of the ciliary nerves in cats. Seven eyes of seven cats were studied under general anesthesia. Trains of monophasic pulses (current, 0.1 to 1.0 mA; duration, 0.5 ms/phase; frequency, 5 to 40 Hz) were applied to the lateral or medial branch of the short ciliary nerve near the posterior pole of the eye. A pair of electrodes was hooked onto one or both branch of the short ciliary nerve. The electrodes were placed about 5 mm from the scleral surface. The wavefront aberrations were recorded continuously for 2 seconds before, 8 seconds during, and for 20 seconds after the electrical stimulation. The pupillary images were simultaneously recorded during the stimulation period. Both the wavefront aberrations and the pupillary images were obtained 10 times/sec with a custom-built wavefront aberrometer. The maximum accommodative amplitude was 1.19 diopters (D) produced by electrical stimulation of the short ciliary nerves. The latency of the accommodative changes was very short, and the accommodative level gradually increased up to 4 seconds and reached a plateau. When only one branch of the ciliary nerve was stimulated, the pupil dilated asymmetrically, and the oblique astigmatism and one of the asymmetrical wavefront terms was also altered. Our results showed that the wavefront aberrations and pupillary dilations can be measured simultaneously and serially with a compact wavefront aberrometer. The asymmetric pupil dilation and asymmetric changes of the wavefront aberrations suggest that each branch of the ciliary nerve innervates specific segments of the ciliary muscle and dilator muscle of the pupil.

Crystalline lens thickness determines the perceived chromatic difference in magnification

Since the origin of the high interindividual variability of the chromatic difference in retinal image magnification (CDM) in the human eye is not well understood, optical parameters that might determine its magnitude were studied in 21 healthy subjects with ages ranging from 21 to 58 years. Two psychophysical procedures were used to quantify CDM. They produced highly correlated results. First, a red and a blue square, presented on a black screen, had to be matched in size by the subjects with their right eyes. Second, a filled red and blue square, flickering on top of each other at 2 Hz, had to be adjusted in perceived brightness and then in size to minimize the impression of flicker. CDM varied widely among subjects from 0.0% to 3.6%. Biometric ocular parameters were measured with low coherence interferometry and crystalline lens tilt and decentration with a custom-built Purkinjemeter. Correlations were studied between CDM and corneal power, anterior chamber depth, lens thickness, lens tilt and lens decentration, and vitreous chamber depths. Lens thickness was found significantly correlated with CDM and accounted for 64% of its variance. Vertical lens tilt and decentration were also significantly correlated. It was also found that CDM increased by 3.5% per year, and part of this change can be attributed to the age-related increase in lens thickness.