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Abstract
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is common in preterm infants and usually is a physiologic phenomenon with little clinical consequence. GER resulting in clinical signs and symptoms is considered pathologic gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Correlation of clinical signs and symptoms with GER has been poor in most studies. The efficacy of GERD therapy has not been studied systematically in preterm infants. Furthermore, GERD therapy, particularly with prokinetic agents and surgery, carries potential risks that must be considered before initiation of therapy. Alternative diagnoses, pretreatment diagnostic testing, and desired treatment outcomes should be considered before initiating GERD therapy. Cessation of empiric GERD therapy should be considered, particularly if treatment does not result in the desired clinical outcome.
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Jadcherla SR, Hoffmann RG, Shaker R. Effect of maturation of the magnitude of mechanosensitive and chemosensitive reflexes in the premature human esophagus. J Pediatr 2006; 149:77-82. [PMID: 16860132 PMCID: PMC4075758 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.02.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2005] [Revised: 02/09/2006] [Accepted: 02/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the effect of esophageal mechanosensitive and chemosensitive stimulation on the magnitude and recruitment of peristaltic reflexes and upper esophageal sphincter (UES)-contractile reflex in premature infants. STUDY DESIGN Esophageal manometry and provocation testing were performed in the same 18 neonates at 33 and 36 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA). Mechanoreceptor and chemoreceptor stimulation were performed using graded volumes of air, water, and apple juice (pH 3.7), respectively. The frequency and magnitude of the resulting esophago-deglutition response (EDR) or secondary peristalsis (SP), and esophago-UES-contractile reflex (EUCR) were quantified. RESULTS Threshold volumes to evoke EDR, SP, or EUCR were similar. The recruitment and magnitude of SP and EUCR increased with volume increments of air and water in either study (P < .05). However, apple juice infusions resulted in increased recruitment of EDR in the 33 weeks group (P < .05), and SP in the 36 weeks group (P < .05). The magnitude of EUCR was also volume responsive (all media, P < .05), and significant differences between media were noted (P < .05). At maximal stimulation (1 mL, all media), sensory-motor characteristics of peristaltic and EUCR reflexes were different (P < .05) between media and groups. CONCLUSIONS Mechano- and chemosensitive stimuli evoke volume-dependent specific peristaltic and UES reflexes at 33 and 36 weeks PMA. The recruitment and magnitude of these reflexes are dependent on the physicochemical properties of the stimuli in healthy premature infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudarshan Rao Jadcherla
- Sections of Neonatology and Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition at the Columbus Children's Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, the Ohio State University School of Medicine and Public Health, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
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Dahms BB. Reflux esophagitis: sequelae and differential diagnosis in infants and children including eosinophilic esophagitis. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2004; 7:5-16. [PMID: 15255030 DOI: 10.1007/s10024-003-0203-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common condition in infants and children and has many clinical mimics. Most pediatric pathology departments process many mucosal biopsies from the proximal gastrointestinal tract to evaluate the presence or absence of reflux esophagitis. Since this subject was last reviewed in the 1997 edition of Perspectives in Pediatric Pathology devoted to gastrointestinal diseases in children (Dahms BB. Reflux esophagitis and sequelae in infants and children. In: Dahms BB, Qualman SJ, eds. Gastrointestinal Disease. Perspectives in Pediatric Pathology, vol. 20. Basel: Karger, 1997;14-34), progress in the field has allowed recognition of additional presenting symptoms and treatments of GERD. Histologic criteria for diagnosing reflux esophagitis have not changed. However, the entity of eosinophilic esophagitis has emerged since 1997 and has been defined well enough to allow it to be distinguished from reflux esophagitis, with which it was probably previously confused. Refinements (though not simplification!) in the definition of Barrett esophagus are still in evolution. This review will summarize these newer concepts and briefly review the standards of diagnosis of reflux esophagitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverly Barrett Dahms
- Department of Pathology, University Hospitals of Cleveland, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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Davidson GP, Omari TI. Pathophysiological mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2003; 3:257-62. [PMID: 11353563 DOI: 10.1007/s11894-001-0030-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is an extremely common pediatric problem, but only in the past few years have we developed a better understanding of its pathophysiology. This is related to the wider use of investigative tools such as flexible endoscopy, 24-hour pH monitoring, and more recently, micromanometric methods and noninvasive breath tests, which have been particularly useful in infants. This paper reviews our current understanding of the esophageal and gastric mechanisms contributing to the pathophysiology of GER. In this context, we also highlight areas where new therapeutic approaches may be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- G P Davidson
- Centre for Paediatric and Adolescent Gastroenterology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide SA 5006, Australia.
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Jadcherla SR, Duong HQ, Hoffmann RG, Shaker R. Esophageal body and upper esophageal sphincter motor responses to esophageal provocation during maturation in preterm newborns. J Pediatr 2003; 143:31-8. [PMID: 12915821 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(03)00242-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We studied the maturation of esophageal body and upper esophageal sphincter (UES) motor responses that protect against reflux in newborns. STUDY DESIGN The responses of esophageal body and UES on midesophageal provocation were quantified using a micromanometric water perfusion system and a specially designed catheter with a UES sleeve and 5 side-hole recording sites. Eighteen healthy premature infants were studied twice, at 33.4 weeks' and 35.7 weeks' mean postmenstrual ages (PMAs). RESULTS Mean threshold volumes and the distribution of responses including secondary peristalsis, UES pressure increase, and primary peristalsis were similar for air and liquids. Secondary peristalsis and UES pressure increases were volume dependent for both studies, but their characteristics changed as PMA increased in that (1) completely propagated secondary peristalsis with liquids increased; (2) proximal esophageal contraction duration was shorter for air and liquids; and (3) propagating velocity for liquids was faster. CONCLUSIONS Esophageal and UES motor responses to abrupt midesophageal provocation are present as early as 33 weeks' PMA, and the response-characteristics improve during development. Reflexes that may facilitate esophageal clearance include (1) secondary peristalsis; (2) esophago-UES-contractile reflex; and (3) esophago-deglutition response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudarshan Rao Jadcherla
- Section of Neonatology, Columbus Children's Hospital and Children's Research Institute, Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine and Public Health, 43205, USA.
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Gold BD, Freston JW. Gastroesophageal reflux in children: pathogenesis, prevalence, diagnosis, and role of proton pump inhibitors in treatment. Paediatr Drugs 2003; 4:673-85. [PMID: 12269842 DOI: 10.2165/00128072-200204100-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A substantial percentage of infants, children and adolescents experience gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and its accompanying symptoms, as well as disease complications. The diagnosis of GERD in children is made based upon the child's history, and data derived primarily from pH monitoring tests and endoscopy. In those children with confirmed reflux disease, the options for management parallel those recommended in adult patients, with the first step consisting of lifestyle changes. Surgical procedures may also be performed; however, these are rarely recommended prior to an adequate course of pharmacologic therapy, and appropriate case selection is important. Among the current pharmacotherapeutic options available in the US, the prokinetic agents and the acid-inhibitory agents (histamine-2 receptor antagonists, proton pump inhibitors) are the most widely used. The clinical utility of the prokinetic agents has been limited by the recent withdrawal of cisapride from the US marketplace and the potential for irreversible central nervous system complications with metoclopramide. Numerous clinical studies performed in adults, and several studies involving children, have demonstrated that the proton pump inhibitors are more effective than the histamine-2 receptor antagonists in the relief of GERD symptoms and healing of erosive esophagitis. In children, omeprazole and lansoprazole may be administered as the intact oral capsule, or in those who are unable or unwilling to swallow, the granule contents of the capsule may be mixed with soft foods (e.g. apple sauce) or fruit drinks/liquid dietary supplements prior to oral administration with no detrimental effects on pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, or pharmacodynamics. Studies performed with omeprazole and lansoprazole in children have shown pharmacokinetic parameters that closely resemble those observed in adults. In over a decade of use in adults, the proton pump inhibitor class of agents has been found to have a good safety profile. Studies involving children have also shown these agents to be well tolerated. In numerous drug-drug interaction studies performed with these two proton pump inhibitors, relatively few clinically significant interactions have been observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Gold
- Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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Abstract
Achieving appropriate growth and nutrient accretion of preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants is often difficult during hospitalization because of metabolic and gastrointestinal immaturity and other complicating medical conditions. Advances in the care of preterm-LBW infants, including improved nutrition, have reduced mortality rates for these infants from 9.6 to 6.2% from 1983 to 1997. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has responsibility for ensuring the safety and nutritional quality of infant formulas based on current scientific knowledge. Consequently, under FDA contract, an ad hoc Expert Panel was convened by the Life Sciences Research Office of the American Society for Nutritional Sciences to make recommendations for the nutrient content of formulas for preterm-LBW infants based on current scientific knowledge and expert opinion. Recommendations were developed from different criteria than that used for recommendations for term infant formula. To ensure nutrient adequacy, the Panel considered intrauterine accretion rate, organ development, factorial estimates of requirements, nutrient interactions and supplemental feeding studies. Consideration was also given to long-term developmental outcome. Some recommendations were based on current use in domestic preterm formula. Included were recommendations for nutrients not required in formula for term infants such as lactose and arginine. Recommendations, examples, and sample calculations were based on a 1000 g preterm infant consuming 120 kcal/kg and 150 mL/d of an 810 kcal/L formula. A summary of recommendations for energy and 45 nutrient components of enteral formulas for preterm-LBW infants are presented. Recommendations for five nutrient:nutrient ratios are also presented. In addition, critical areas for future research on the nutritional requirements specific for preterm-LBW infants are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine J Klein
- Life Sciences Research Office, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA.
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Abstract
Physiologic GER may be a maturational phenomenon, because infants outgrow this over time. Many aspects of GERD in neonates and young infants remain incompletely understood, however, particularly the pathophysiology and long-term problems in high-risk neonates. Diagnostic and therapeutic availability is vital in infants with GER and airway compromise, apnea events, or chronic lung disease. Although most infants improve with conservative therapy, there is a dire lack of ideal pharmacologic agents that work on all the mechanisms of GER with the least consequences. Studies that permit diagnosis not only of the disease but also of the causal mechanism, better feeding strategies, and prevention of morbidity from GERD will be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudarshan Rao Jadcherla
- Section of Neonatology and Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.
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Corrado G, Cavaliere M, Porcelli M, Vitullo P, Cardi E. The otolaryngologic manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux: when is a pH sudy indicated? J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35:1274. [PMID: 10945712 DOI: 10.1053/jpsu.2000.8892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Abstract
As many as half of patients who have symptoms and objective evidence of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) will have normal mucosa or only hyperemia at endoscopy. Because inflamed esophageal mucosa may appear normal endoscopically, and because hyperemia may or may not reflect histologic espophagitis, biopsy to document tissue injury in symptomatic patients with these minimal endoscopic findings may be helpful. Reflux may induce inflammation in the squamous mucosa of the esophagus, but in many patients only hyperplasia of the epithelium is seen. This hyperplasia is defined by a basal zone that exceeds 15% of the thickness of the mucosa and subepithelial papillae that exceed 67% of the thickness of the mucosa. Because these changes may be present normally in the distal 2.5 cm of the esophagus, and because they may be distributed over the distal 8 cm in a patchy fashion, multiple biopsies taken more than 2.5 cm above the esophagogastric junction are necessary to detect them reliably. Supraesophageal complications of GERD include posterior laryngitis, inflammatory polyp of the larynx (contact ulcer or laryngeal granuloma), subglottic stenosis and laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Haggitt
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
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Abstract
Cow's milk allergy (CMA) and gastroesophageal reflux are considered to be among the most common disturbances in infants less than 1 year of age. In recent years, the relationship existing between these two entities has been investigated and some important conclusions have been reached: In just under half the cases of GER in infants less than 1 year of age there is an association with CMA; in a high proportion of cases, GER is not only CMA-associated but also CMA-induced; the frequency of this association should induce pediatricians to screen for possible concomitant CMA in all infants with GER less than 1 year old; with the exception of some patients with mild typical CMA manifestations (diarrhea, dermatitis, or rhinitis), the symptoms of GER associated with CMA are the same as those observed in primary GER; immunologic tests are useful in a suspected association between GER and CMA; and subjects with GER secondary to CMA show a typical pH-monitoring tracing pattern, characterized by a progressive, slow decrease in esophageal pH between feedings. This article reviews the main features of the two diseases, stressing the aspects in common between them and comments on all the listed points.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Cavataio
- 1st Divisione Pediatria, Gastroenterologia, Ospedale dei Bambini G. Di Cristina, Palermo, Italy
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Snel A, Barnett CP, Cresp TL, Haslam RR, Davidson GP, Malbert TH, Dent J, Omari TI. Behavior and gastroesophageal reflux in the premature neonate. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000; 30:18-21. [PMID: 10630434 DOI: 10.1097/00005176-200001000-00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The belief that behavioral observations assist in the clinical diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) disease in premature neonates has not been formally tested. The purpose of this study was to determine whether esophageal acidification was associated with a recognizable pattern of behavioral changes in these infants. METHODS The behavior of 14 healthy premature infants was recorded by a video camera while esophageal pH was simultaneously monitored. For each of 20 acid GER episodes recorded, a 10-minute video epoch, encompassing the onset of acid GER and lasting at least 4 minutes after the onset of GER, was examined. Two independent observers each scored reflux-associated epochs of "general" infant behavior and behavior previously shown to be indicative of reflux in normal term infants. RESULTS The occurrence of esophageal acidification due to reflux did not significantly alter scores for general behavior. Infants frequently demonstrated reflux-specific behavior, including discomfort, head retraction, and mouthing; however, none of these behavioral patterns was temporally associated with the occurrence of acid GER. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that reflux-specific behavioral criteria, established in older term infants, may be inappropriate as diagnostic criteria for GER in premature neonates and may lead to the unnecessary use of antireflux therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Snel
- Neonatal Medicine Unit, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, SA, Australia
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Hill DJ, Hosking CS, Heine RG. Clinical spectrum of food allergy in children in Australia and South-East Asia: identification and targets for treatment. Ann Med 1999; 31:272-81. [PMID: 10480758 DOI: 10.3109/07853899908995890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of atopic diseases is increasing worldwide for reasons that are not clear. Food allergies are the earliest manifestations of atopy. This review defines the foods most commonly involved in allergic reactions and identifies an emerging group of syndromes in which food allergy is involved. A study of the frequency of food allergies in Australia and South-East Asia has recently shown that egg, cow's milk and peanut are the most common food allergens in Australia, but there were divergent results from different regions of South-East Asia. It is not clear whether the differences in reactivity to foods are due to genetic or cultural factors, but the findings raise the possibility that genetic susceptibility to food allergy may operate at the T-cell level modulated by the major histocompatibility complex. The Melbourne Milk Allergy Study defined a wide range of clinical symptoms and syndromes that could be reproduced by dietary challenge. A subsequent analysis of the infants with hypersensitivity to cow's milk and other multiple food proteins identified a new syndrome, multiple food protein intolerance of infancy. Food challenges demonstrated reactions developing slowly days after commencement of low-allergen soy formula or extensively hydrolysed formula. Follow-up at the age of 3 years showed that most children with this disorder tolerated most foods apart from cow's milk, egg and peanut. Atopic dermatitis affects about 18% of infants in the first 2 years of life. In a community-based study we have shown a very strong association (RR 3.5) between atopic dermatitis and infants with immunoglobulin E allergy to cow's milk, egg or peanut. Family studies on these infants have shown a link between atopic dermatitis and the genomic region 5q31 adjacent to the interleukin-4 gene cluster. Infantile colic (distress) affects 15-40% of infants in the first 4 months of life. Many theories of causation have been proposed, but a study from our centre showed that dietary modification, particularly that of breastfeeding mothers whose infants present with colic before the age of 6 weeks, alleviated symptoms. Colic associated with vomiting has been attributed to gastro-oesophageal reflux (GOR). This has been considered primarily a motility disorder, but a secondary form resulting from food protein intolerance has been described recently. We have also recently identified a group of infants with distressed behaviour attributed to GOR who have failed to respond to H2-receptor antagonists, prokinetic agents and multiple formula changes. Symptoms resolved on commencement of an elemental amino acid-based formula. In two-thirds of the patients, symptoms relapsed when challenged with low-allergen soy formula or extensively hydrolysed formula. We propose that a period of food protein intolerance is a part of the normal development of the immune system as it encounters common dietary proteins in infancy and early childhood. Future targets for research are development of appropriate dietary and management strategies for these entities and identification of genetic markers for these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Hill
- Department of Allergy, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Vic, Australia.
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Cohen RC, O'Loughlin EV, Davidson GP, Moore DJ, Lawrence DM. Cisapride in the control of symptoms in infants with gastroesophageal reflux: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Pediatr 1999; 134:287-92. [PMID: 10064663 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(99)70451-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the efficacy of cisapride in the treatment of uncomplicated gastroesophageal reflux in children younger than 36 months of age. STUDY DESIGN A total of 95 patients satisfied the entry criteria and were randomly assigned to double-blind treatment with either cisapride (n = 50), 0.2 mg/kg 4 times daily, or placebo (n = 45) for 2 weeks. At the end of the 2-week treatment period, symptom diary and parental evaluation with repeat 24-hour pH study were performed. RESULTS Sixty-eight patients completed the trial (38 in the cisapride group and 30 in the placebo group). There were no significant differences in the symptoms of crying, vomiting, or gagging; the overall symptom intensity score; or parental global evaluations. There was a significant difference (P <.03) in the percent time pH <4, the number of reflux episodes lasting more than 5 minutes, and the duration of the longest episode. No significant difference was demonstrated for the number of episodes with pH <4 or the reflux score. CONCLUSIONS Cisapride was no better than placebo for relief of symptoms in children with uncomplicated gastroesophageal reflux. A beneficial effect was demonstrated in the cisapride group in relation to the measured parameters for esophageal acid exposure time.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Cohen
- Department of Surgery, Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
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Nelson SP, Chen EH, Syniar GM, Christoffel KK. One-year follow-up of symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux during infancy. Pediatric Practice Research Group. Pediatrics 1998; 102:E67. [PMID: 9832595 DOI: 10.1542/peds.102.6.e67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES 1) Determine what percentage of infants outgrow regurgitation over 1 year. 2) Determine whether they develop feeding or mealtime problems. 3) Determine whether they develop frequent respiratory illnesses, including ear, sinus, and upper respiratory infections, or wheezing episodes. DESIGN One-year follow-up survey of parents of children identified at 6 to 12 months of age as those who regurgitate (case subjects) and matched control subjects. PARTICIPANTS Sixty-three case subjects and 92 control subjects attending 12 different (urban, suburban, and rural) practices in the Pediatric Practice Research Group in the Chicago area. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES The Infant Gastroesophageal Reflux Questionnaire-Shortened and Revised Form and the Children's Eating Behavior Inventory (CEBI). RESULTS At 1-year follow-up, no parents of case or control subject described spitting up as currently a problem. The parent of only one control subject (and no case subject) reported spitting up one or more times a day. Parents of subjects were more likely than those of control subjects to report frequent feeding refusal: odds ratio = 4.2, adjusted by age (95% confidence interval: 1.4-12.0). Case and control subjects had comparable average total CEBI scores (case subjects, = 83 +/- 10 vs control subjects, = 82 +/- 11) and comparable average proportion of items identified as a problem (8% +/- 11% case subjects vs 6% +/- 9% control subjects). Case subjects were more likely to respond positively to two CEBI questions indicating specific feeding problems: 1) "my child takes more than an hour to eat his/her meals" (8% case subjects vs 0% control subjects) and 2) "I get upset when I think about our meals" (14% case subjects vs 4% control subjects). The frequencies of ear, sinus, and upper respiratory infections and of episodes of wheezing were comparable in both groups. CONCLUSIONS 1) Infants with daily or problematic regurgitation at 6 to 12 months of age outgrew this within the following year. 2) Infants with daily or problematic regurgitation were more likely to develop feeding problems. 3) There was no increase in respiratory illnesses in infants with a history of regurgitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P Nelson
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Children's Memorial Hospital, Chicago, IL 60614, USA
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Omari TI, Barnett C, Snel A, Goldsworthy W, Haslam R, Davidson G, Kirubakaran C, Bakewell M, Fraser R, Dent J. Mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux in healthy premature infants. J Pediatr 1998; 133:650-4. [PMID: 9821423 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(98)70106-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to characterize the motor events responsible for gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and esophageal acid clearance in a cohort of healthy preterm infants. STUDY DESIGN Esophageal motility was recorded for 2 to 3 hours after a feeding in 24 preterm infants, 31 to 38 weeks' postmenstrual age, by using a sleeveside hole micromanometric assembly incorporating a pH probe. RESULTS Sixty acid GER episodes were recorded by pH probe, and 133 non-acid GER episodes were recorded manometrically by the presence of esophageal common cavities. Of the 193 GER episodes, 159 (82%) were associated with transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation (TLESR). TLESRs were significantly longer in duration than single swallows (15.1 seconds vs 5.6 seconds, P < .001) and had lower nadir pressures (0.8 mm Hg vs 2.3 mm Hg, P < .001). A total of 3216 esophageal body pressure waves were analyzed; 70% of swallow-induced pressure waves were peristaltic in sequence compared with 5% of swallow-unrelated pressure waves. During periods of esophageal acidification (pH below 4), peristaltic esophageal body pressure wave sequences cleared acid refluxate more effectively than nonperistaltic pressure wave sequences. CONCLUSIONS In healthy preterm infants, TLESRs are the predominant mechanism underlying GER, and esophageal clearance mechanisms are well developed by at least 31 weeks' postmenstrual age.
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Affiliation(s)
- T I Omari
- Gastroenterology Unit, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Australia
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Harding SM. Esophageal Disorders and Chronic Cough in Children-To the Editor. Chest 1998. [DOI: 10.1378/chest.114.2.659-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
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Corrado G, Pacchiarotti C, Cavaliere M, Rea P, Cardi E. Esophageal disorders and chronic cough in children. Chest 1998; 114:659-60. [PMID: 9726773 DOI: 10.1378/chest.114.2.659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
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SHEIKH SHAHIDI, STEPHEN THOMASC, EID NEMRS. The Use of Omeprazole in Infants with Gastroesophageal Reflux-induced Wheezing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1089/pai.1998.12.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Abstract
The inability to successfully feed a young infant or child is as worrisome to parents as it is to the health care provider. Early growth failures are likely to reflect difficulty with infant homeostasis and often respond to medical management of the physical problem that is temporarily interfering with the infant's ability to feed by mouth. In addition to medical management, however, treatment also necessitates investigation and management of behavioral problems that so universally accompany growth failure. This article presents a case study of a child who presented with poor growth and respiratory symptoms associated with nonregurgitant gastroesophageal reflux, a clinical entity that can be difficult to recognize. Although surgical management of this condition was successful, persistent failure-to-thrive continued and was seemingly recalcitrant to treatment. The use of cyproheptadine as an appetite stimulant to promote weight gain in this child is discussed with a review of the current literature regarding this pharmacologic approach to poor weight gain. A behavioral-based treatment plan is described as an alternate management method, avoiding the use of pharmacologic agents in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- P K Lemons
- Riley Children's Hospital, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis 46202-5210, USA
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Button BM, Heine RG, Catto-Smith AG, Phelan PD, Olinsky A. Postural drainage and gastro-oesophageal reflux in infants with cystic fibrosis. Arch Dis Child 1997; 76:148-50. [PMID: 9068307 PMCID: PMC1717055 DOI: 10.1136/adc.76.2.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Gastro-oesophageal reflux is increased in cystic fibrosis and it is possible that postural drainage techniques may exacerbate reflux, potentially resulting in aspiration and further impairment of pulmonary function. AIM To evaluate the effects of physiotherapy with head down tilt (standard physiotherapy, SPT) on gastroesophageal reflux and to compare this with physiotherapy without head down tilt (modified physiotherapy, MPT). METHOD Twenty (mean age 2.1 months) infants with cystic fibrosis underwent 30 hour oesophageal pH monitoring during which SPT and MPT were carried out for two sessions each on consecutive days. RESULTS The number of reflux episodes per hour, but not their duration, was significantly increased during SPT compared with MPT (SPT 2.5 (0.4) v MPT 1.6 (0.3), p = 0.007) and to background (1.1 (0.)1, p = 0.0005). Fractional reflux time was also increased during SPT (11.7 (2.6)%) compared with background (6.9 (1.3)%) p = 0.03) but not compared with MPT (10.7 (2.7)%). There was no significant difference between MPT and background for number of reflux episodes, their duration, or fractional reflux time. CONCLUSIONS SPT, but not MPT, was associated with a significant increase in gastro-oesophageal reflux in infants with cystic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Button
- Department of Physiotherapy, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne
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26
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Orenstein SR, Shalaby TM, Cohn JF. Reflux symptoms in 100 normal infants: diagnostic validity of the infant gastroesophageal reflux questionnaire. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1996; 35:607-14. [PMID: 8970752 DOI: 10.1177/000992289603501201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
To identify the prevalence of reflux symptoms in normal infants, to characterize the diagnostic validity of a previously described 138-item Infant Gastroesophageal Reflux Questionnaire (I-GERQ) for separating normal infants from those with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and to identify potentially provocative caretaking practices, we administered the questionnaire to 100 infants attending a well-baby clinic (normals) and to 35 infants referred to the Gastroenterology Division for evaluation for GERI) and testing positive on esophageal pH probe or biopsy (GERD infants). Differences were analyzed by Chi-square, and odds ratios were defined. The diagnostic validity of a 25-point I-GERQ GERD score based on 11 items on the questionnaire was evaluated by calculating its sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values. We found that normal infants had a high prevalence of reflux symptoms, such as daily regurgitation (40%), respiratory symptoms, crying more than an hour a day (17%), arching (10%), or daily hiccups (36%) but that many symptoms were significantly more prevalent in the GERD than in the normal infants (Chi-square P < .05), and odds ratios were above 3 for nearly 20 items. The positive and negative predictive values for the 25-point I-GERQ score were 1.00 and .94-.98, respectively. Environmental smoke exposure did not quite reach significance as a provocative factor for GERD. Although normal infants have a high prevalence of symptoms suggesting GERD, a simple questionnaire-based score is a valid diagnostic test with high positive and negative predictive values.
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Affiliation(s)
- S R Orenstein
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pennsylvania, USA
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Bauman NM, Sandler AD, Smith RJ. Respiratory manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux disease in pediatric patients. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1996; 105:23-32. [PMID: 8546421 DOI: 10.1177/000348949610500105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) are being recognized with increasing frequency. We present the evaluation and management of four infants and children with unusual respiratory symptoms attributed to GERD. The advantages and disadvantages of diagnostic studies of GERD are discussed, and an evaluation and treatment protocol is presented. Treatment must be tailored to the nature and severity of the patient's presenting symptoms and includes conservative, pharmacologic, and/or surgical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Bauman
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, USA
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28
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Omari TI, Miki K, Fraser R, Davidson G, Haslam R, Goldsworthy W, Bakewell M, Kawahara H, Dent J. Esophageal body and lower esophageal sphincter function in healthy premature infants. Gastroenterology 1995; 109:1757-64. [PMID: 7498639 DOI: 10.1016/0016-5085(95)90741-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Gastroesophageal reflux is a common problem in premature infants. The aim of this study was to use a novel manometric technique to measure esophageal body and lower esophageal sphincter pressures in premature infants. METHODS Micromanometric feeding assemblies (OD, < or = 2 mm) incorporating 4-9 manometric channels were used in 49 studies of 27 premature neonates. Esophageal body motility was recorded at three sites for 20 minutes after feeding. Twenty attempts (one per minute) were made to stimulate swallowing via facial stimulation (Santmyer reflex). In 32 studies lower esophageal sphincter pressures were recorded (sleeve) for 15 minutes before and after feeding. RESULTS Peristaltic motor patterns were less common than non-peristaltic motor patterns (26.6% vs. 73.4%; P < 0.0001) that comprised 31.1% synchronous, 34.6% incomplete, and 6.3% retrograde pressure waves. Reflex swallowing was elicited more frequently in neonates older than 34 weeks postconceptional age than in younger infants (33.4% vs. 20.4%; P < 0.05). Mean lower esophageal sphincter pressure was 20.5 +/- 1.7 mm Hg before and 13.7 +/- 1.3 mm Hg after feeding (P < 0.0005). CONCLUSIONS Premature infants show nonperistaltic esophageal motility that may contribute to poor clearance of refluxed material. In contrast, the lower esophageal sphincter mechanisms seem well developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- T I Omari
- Department of Gastroenterology, Women's and Children's Hospital, North Adelaide, Australia
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29
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Kelly KJ, Lazenby AJ, Rowe PC, Yardley JH, Perman JA, Sampson HA. Eosinophilic esophagitis attributed to gastroesophageal reflux: improvement with an amino acid-based formula. Gastroenterology 1995; 109:1503-12. [PMID: 7557132 DOI: 10.1016/0016-5085(95)90637-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 728] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Treatment for gastroesophageal reflux may be ineffective in patients with an eosinophilic infiltration of the esophagus. The aim of this study was to investigate whether unremitting symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux and biopsy abnormalities of the esophagus may be associated with the ingestion of certain foods. METHODS Ten children previously diagnosed with gastroesophageal reflux by standard testing with long-standing symptoms (median, 34.3 months; range, 6-78 months) despite standard antireflux therapies, including Nissen fundoplication in 6 patients, were fed the elemental formulas Neocate or Neocate-1-Plus (Scientific Hospital Supplies Inc., Gaithersburg, MD) for a minimum of 6 weeks. Each child had repeat endoscopy followed by open food challenges. RESULTS While receiving the formulas, patients had either resolution (n = 8) or improvement (n = 2) of symptoms. On follow-up esophageal biopsy, the maximal intraepithelial eosinophil counts decreased significantly before (median, 41; range, 15-100) to after (median, 0.5; range, 0-22) the formula trial (P = 0.005). Other reactive epithelial changes of the esophageal mucosa also improved significantly. All patients redeveloped their previous symptoms on open food challenges. CONCLUSIONS Chronic gastrointestinal symptoms and histological changes of the esophagus unresponsive to standard treatments for gastroesophageal reflux were improved by the use of elemental formulas. Symptoms recurred when specific dietary proteins were reintroduced during open food challenges. The mechanism of these observations is unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Kelly
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology/Nutrition, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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30
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Unti SM. The critical first year of life. History, physical examination, and general developmental assessment. Pediatr Clin North Am 1994; 41:859-73. [PMID: 7936777 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-3955(16)38835-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
An effective communication style allows the pediatrician to implement optimal health care in a child's critical first year of life. During each encounter with the infant, the pediatrician should strive to elicit the best possible history and perform the best possible physical examination, to provide parents with timely anticipatory guidance, and to enrich the overall therapeutic health care alliance between himself or herself and the patient and family. The rewards for this effort can be exceptionally satisfying and can ideally be lifelong for both the patient and the pediatrician.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Unti
- Department of Pediatrics, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois
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31
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Sigalet DL, Nguyen LT, Adolph V, Laberge JM, Hong AR, Guttman FM. Gastroesophageal reflux associated with large diaphragmatic hernias. J Pediatr Surg 1994; 29:1262-5. [PMID: 7807363 DOI: 10.1016/0022-3468(94)90819-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support has improved the outlook for some infants who have large diaphragmatic hernias (CDH). This has resulted in a subset of survivors of CDH with typically larger defects, more severe pulmonary hypoplasia, and more associated pathologies. This report describes the authors' experience with gastroesophageal reflux in patients with large diaphragmatic hernias who require ECMO. Contrary to previous reports, this reflux was severe and intractable. There appears to be a component of associated gastric dysmotility. In treating this reflux, medical therapy and anterior fundoplication were not successful, and Nissen fundoplication combined with pyloroplasty was required to control reflux and to allow gastric feeding. On the basis of the authors' experience, it is recommended that patients who have gastroesophageal reflux after CDH repair, for whom medical management has failed, be managed aggressively by surgery, with early Nissen fundoplication, and pyloroplasty and insertion of a gastric feeding tube.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Sigalet
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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32
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Abstract
We have evaluated the presence of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and the effect of its treatment in 12 infants (mean age, 7 months; range, 4-11 months) with persistent wheezing not responding to bronchodilators and anti-inflammatory asthma medications. All patients had GER on cineradiography and significant acid reflux on 24 hour pH monitoring (percentage of time pH < 4 ranged from 6.1 to 47%). All infants were initially treated with prokinetic agents and with receptor histamine antagonists in addition to aggressive pulmonary therapy. Six patients treated medically had substantially decreased use of asthma medications, completely discontinuing them within 2-4 months. Two patients, though significantly improved, require intermittent asthma therapy. Four patients responding poorly to GER and asthma treatment for 2 months to 2 years had fundoplications. These had an excellent outcome over 1-4.5 years follow-up; only one patient required further asthma medications. Pulmonary function testing was done in six patients before and after 6-8 weeks of therapy indicating significant improvement in peripheral airflow: terminal flow/peak tidal expiratory flow (TEF25/PTEF), and percentage of total expiratory time to reach peak tidal expiratory flow (Tp/Te or Tme/Te). Our experience suggests that evaluation for GER should be considered in infants with persistent wheezing. Aggressive medical and possibly surgical therapy for GER may resolve persistent wheezing.
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Affiliation(s)
- N S Eid
- Kosair Children's Hospital, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Kentucky
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Cucchiara S, Minella R, Iervolino C, Franco MT, Campanozzi A, Franceschi M, D'Armiento F, Auricchio S. Omeprazole and high dose ranitidine in the treatment of refractory reflux oesophagitis. Arch Dis Child 1993; 69:655-9. [PMID: 8285777 PMCID: PMC1029648 DOI: 10.1136/adc.69.6.655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Thirty two consecutive patients (age range 6 months-13.4 years) with severe reflux oesophagitis were randomised to a therapeutic trial for eight weeks during which they received either standard doses of omeprazole (40 mg/day/1.73 m2 surface area) or high doses of ranitidine (20 mg/kg/day). Twenty five patients completed the trial (12 on omeprazole, 13 on ranitidine). At entry and at the end of the trial patients underwent symptomatic score assessment, endoscopic and histological evaluation of the oesophagus, and simultaneous oesophageal and gastric pH measurement; results are given as median (range). Both therapeutic regimens were effective in decreasing clinical score (omeprazole before 24.0 (15-33), after 9.0 (0-18); ranitidine before 19.5 (12-33), after 9.0 (6-12)), in improving the histological degree of oesophagitis (omeprazole before 8.0 (6-10), after 2.0 (0-60); ranitidine before 8.0 (8-10), after 2.0 (2-6), and in reducing oesophageal acid exposure, measured as minutes of reflux at 24 hour pH monitoring (omeprazole before 129.4 (84-217), after 44.6 (0.16-128); ranitidine before 207.3 (66-306), after 58.4 (32-128)) as well as intragastric acidity, measured as median intragastric pH (omeprazole before 2.1 (1.0-3.0), after 5.1 (2.2-7.4); ranitidine before 1.9 (1.6-4), after 3.4 (2.3-5.3)). Serum gastrin concentration was > 150 ng/l in four patients on omeprazole and in three patients on ranitidine. It is concluded that in children with refractory reflux oesophagitis high doses of ranitidine are comparable with omeprazole for the healing of oesophagitis and relief of symptoms; both drugs resulted in efficacious reduction of intragastric acidity and intra-oesophageal acid exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Cucchiara
- 2nd School of Medicine, University of Naples, Italy
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