Sendai virus-induced cell fusion

Cell fusion dynamics: mechanisms of multinucleation in osteoclasts and macrophages

Cell-cell fusion is a vital biological process where the membranes of two or more cells merge to form a syncytium. This phenomenon is critical in various physiological and pathological contexts, including embryonic development, tissue repair, immune responses, and the progression of several diseases. Osteoclasts, which are cells from the monocyte/macrophage lineage responsible for bone resorption, have enhanced functionality due to cell fusion. Additionally, other multinucleated giant cells (MGCs) also arise from the fusion of monocytes and macrophages, typically during chronic inflammation and reactions to foreign materials such as prostheses or medical devices. Foreign body giant cells (FBGCs) and Langhans giant cells (LGCs) emerge only under pathological conditions and are involved in phagocytosis, antigen presentation, and the secretion of inflammatory mediators. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the mechanisms underlying the formation of multinucleated cells, with a particular emphasis on macrophages and osteoclasts. Elucidating the intracellular structures, signaling cascades, and fusion-mediating proteins involved in cell-cell fusion enhances our understanding of this fundamental biological process and helps identify potential therapeutic targets for disorders mediated by cell fusion.

Developing Advanced Chimeric Cell Therapy for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal, X-linked disorder leading to muscle degeneration and premature death due to cardiopulmonary complications. Currently, there is no cure for DMD. We previously confirmed the efficacy of human Dystrophin-Expressing Chimeric (DEC) cells created via the fusion of myoblasts from normal and DMD-affected donors. The current study aimed to optimize the development of DEC therapy via the polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated fusion protocol of human myoblasts derived from normal, unrelated donors. The optimization of cell fusion assessed different factors influencing fusion efficacy, including myoblast passage number, the efficacy of PKH myoblast staining, the ratio of the single-stained myoblasts in the MIX, and PEG administration time. Additionally, the effect of PEG fusion procedure on cell viability was assessed. A correlation was found between the number of cells used for PKH staining and staining efficacy. Furthermore, the ratio of single-stained myoblasts in the MIX and PEG administration time correlated with fusion efficacy. There was no correlation found between the myoblast passage number and fusion efficacy. This study successfully optimized the myoblast fusion protocol for creation of human DEC cells, introducing DEC as a new Advanced Therapy Medicinal Product (ATMP) for DMD patients.

An In Vivo Screening Model for Investigation of Pathophysiology of Human Implantation Failure

To improve current infertility treatments, it is important to understand the pathophysiology of implantation failure. However, many molecules are involved in the normal biological process of implantation and the roles of each molecule and the molecular mechanism are not fully understood. This review highlights the hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ; Sendai virus) envelope (HVJ-E) vector, which uses inactivated viral particles as a local and transient gene transfer system to the murine uterus during the implantation period in order to investigate the molecular mechanism of implantation. In vivo screening in mice using the HVJ-E vector system suggests that signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (Stat-3) could be a diagnostic and therapeutic target for women with a history of implantation failure. The HVJ-E vector system hardly induces complete defects in genes; however, it not only suppresses but also transiently overexpresses some genes in the murine uterus. These features may be useful in investigating the pathophysiology of implantation failure in women.

A phase I dose-escalation, safety/tolerability, and preliminary efficacy study of the intratumoral administration of GEN0101 in patients with advanced melanoma

Despite recent advance in immunotherapy agents, safe new therapies that enhance the effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors are still required to develop. We previously demonstrated that hemagglutinating virus of Japan-envelope (HVJ-E) induced not only direct tumor cell death but also antitumor immunity through the activation of T and natural killer (NK) cells, thereafter, developed a manufacturing process of HVJ-E (GEN0101) for clinical use. We here performed a phase Ia clinical trial of intratumoral GEN0101 administration in six patients with stage IIIC or IV malignant melanoma. The primary aim was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of GEN0101, and the secondary aim was to examine the objective tumor response. Patients were separated into two groups (n = 3 each) and received a low dose of 30,000 and high dose of 60,000 mNAU of GEN0101. All patients completed a two-week follow-up evaluation without severe adverse events. The overall response rate was 33% (2 of 6), with 2 partial responses in the high-dose group and 2 with stable disease, and 2 with progressive disease in the low-dose group. Local complete or partial responses were observed in 11 of 18 (61%) target lesions. One patient demonstrated shrinkage of lung metastases after the treatment. The activity of NK cells and interferon-γ levels were increased in the circulation, indicating augmentation of antitumor immunity by GEN0101. This trial showed not only the safety and tolerability but also the significant antitumor effect of GEN0101, suggesting that GEN0101 might be a promising new drug for patients with advanced melanoma.

Optimization study of plasmonic cell fusion

Artificial cell fusion often serves as a valuable tool for studying different applications in biology and medicine, including natural development, immune response, cancer metastasis and production of therapeutic molecules. Plasmonic cell fusion, a technique that uses specific cell labeling by gold nanoparticles and resonant femtosecond pulse irradiation for fusing neighboring cells, has been demonstrated useful for such applications, allowing high cell specificity and an overall low toxicity. Despite these advantages, the numerous experimental factors contributing to plasmonic fusion have often led to subpar fusion efficiencies, requiring repeated experiments and extensive calibration protocols for achieving optimal results. In this work we present a study that aims to improve the overall performance of plasmonic cell fusion in terms of fusion efficiency and cell viability. By varying the pulse fluence, nanoparticle concentration, incubation times, and culture handling protocols, we demonstrate up to 100% fusion of malignant epithelial cells across the entire irradiated area of the culture. We also show that some of the smaller cells may stay viable for up to several days. The results would allow plasmonic fusion to play a key role in numerous studies and applications that require specific, high-efficiency cell-cell fusion.

Microfluidic Surgery in Single Cells and Multicellular Systems

Microscale surgery on single cells and small organisms has enabled major advances in fundamental biology and in engineering biological systems. Examples of applications range from wound healing and regeneration studies to the generation of hybridoma to produce monoclonal antibodies. Even today, these surgical operations are often performed manually, but they are labor intensive and lack reproducibility. Microfluidics has emerged as a powerful technology to control and manipulate cells and multicellular systems at the micro- and nanoscale with high precision. Here, we review the physical and chemical mechanisms of microscale surgery and the corresponding design principles, applications, and implementations in microfluidic systems. We consider four types of surgical operations: (1) sectioning, which splits a biological entity into multiple parts, (2) ablation, which destroys part of an entity, (3) biopsy, which extracts materials from within a living cell, and (4) fusion, which joins multiple entities into one. For each type of surgery, we summarize the motivating applications and the microfluidic devices developed. Throughout this review, we highlight existing challenges and opportunities. We hope that this review will inspire scientists and engineers to continue to explore and improve microfluidic surgical methods.

Cell-Cell Fusion Mediated by Viruses and HERV-Derived Fusogens in Cancer Initiation and Progression

Cell fusion is a well-known, but still scarcely understood biological phenomenon, which might play a role in cancer initiation, progression and formation of metastases. Although the merging of two (cancer) cells appears simple, the entire process is highly complex, energy-dependent and tightly regulated. Among cell fusion-inducing and -regulating factors, so-called fusogens have been identified as a specific type of proteins that are indispensable for overcoming fusion-associated energetic barriers and final merging of plasma membranes. About 8% of the human genome is of retroviral origin and some well-known fusogens, such as syncytin-1, are expressed by human (cancer) cells. Likewise, enveloped viruses can enable and facilitate cell fusion due to evolutionarily optimized fusogens, and are also capable to induce bi- and multinucleation underlining their fusion capacity. Moreover, multinucleated giant cancer cells have been found in tumors derived from oncogenic viruses. Accordingly, a potential correlation between viruses and fusogens of human endogenous retroviral origin in cancer cell fusion will be summarized in this review.

Virus-Mediated Cell-Cell Fusion

Cell-cell fusion between eukaryotic cells is a general process involved in many physiological and pathological conditions, including infections by bacteria, parasites, and viruses. As obligate intracellular pathogens, viruses use intracellular machineries and pathways for efficient replication in their host target cells. Interestingly, certain viruses, and, more especially, enveloped viruses belonging to different viral families and including human pathogens, can mediate cell-cell fusion between infected cells and neighboring non-infected cells. Depending of the cellular environment and tissue organization, this virus-mediated cell-cell fusion leads to the merge of membrane and cytoplasm contents and formation of multinucleated cells, also called syncytia, that can express high amount of viral antigens in tissues and organs of infected hosts. This ability of some viruses to trigger cell-cell fusion between infected cells as virus-donor cells and surrounding non-infected target cells is mainly related to virus-encoded fusion proteins, known as viral fusogens displaying high fusogenic properties, and expressed at the cell surface of the virus-donor cells. Virus-induced cell-cell fusion is then mediated by interactions of these viral fusion proteins with surface molecules or receptors involved in virus entry and expressed on neighboring non-infected cells. Thus, the goal of this review is to give an overview of the different animal virus families, with a more special focus on human pathogens, that can trigger cell-cell fusion.

Potential of Cell Surface Engineering with Biocompatible Polymers for Biomedical Applications

The regulation of the cellular surface with biomaterials can contribute to the progress of biomedical applications. In particular, the cell surface is exposed to immunological surveillance and reactions in transplantation therapy, and modulation of cell surface properties might improve transplantation outcomes. The transplantation of therapeutic cells, tissue, and organs is an effective and fundamental treatment and has contributed to saving lives and improving quality of life. Because of shortages, donor cells, tissues, and organs are carefully transplanted with the goal of retaining activity and viability. However, some issues remain to be resolved in terms of reducing side effects, improving graft survival, managing innate and adaptive immune responses, and improving transplant storage and procedures. Given that the transplantation process involves multiple steps and is technically complicated, an engineering approach together with medical approaches to resolving these issues could enhance success. In particular, cell surface engineering with biocompatible polymers looks promising for improving transplantation therapy and has potential for other biomedical applications. Here we review the significance of polymer-based surface modification of cells and organs for biomedical applications, focusing on the following three topics: Cell protection: cellular protection through local immune regulation using cell surface modification with biocompatible polymers. This protection could extend to preventing attack by the host immune system, freeing recipients from taking immunosuppressive drugs, and avoiding a second transplantation. Cell attachment: cell manipulation, which is an important technique for delivery of therapeutic cells and their alignment for recellularization of decellularized tissues and organs in regenerative therapy. Cell fusion: fusion of different cells, which can lead to the formation of new functional cells that could be useful for generating, e.g., immunologically competent or metabolically active cells.

A faster and easier biodosimetry method based on calyculin A-induced premature chromosome condensation (PCC) by scoring excess objects

Dicentric analysis and the ring PCC assay as established biodosimetry methods both have limitations in the estimation of absorbed doses in suspected overexposure cases between 5 and 10 Gy. The proposed method based on calyculin A-induced PCC overcomes these limitations by scoring excess objects as the endpoint. This new scoring method can potentially serve as a faster and up-scalable approach that complements the existing methods with higher accuracy at different dose ranges. It can also potentially be performed by less skilled workers when no automated system is available in mass casualty emergency cases to assist with the triage of patients. Additionally, it offers the possibility to further reduce the sample size and PCC induction time. In this pilot study, a calibration curve for excess objects was constructed using the new scoring method for the first time and a blind validation test composed of three unknown doses was carried out. Almost all the dose estimates were within the 95% confidence limits of the actual test doses by scoring only 50-100 PCC spreads. This method was found to be more accurate than ring PCC for doses below 10 Gy.

Promotion of cell membrane fusion by cell-cell attachment through cell surface modification with functional peptide-PEG-lipids

Cell fusion is a fundamental event in various biological processes and has been applied to a number of biotechnologies. However, cell fusion efficiency is still low and strongly depends on cell lines and skills, though some improvements have been made. Our hypothesis is that two distinct cell membranes need to be brought together for cell membrane fusion, which is important for mimicking cell fusion in vitro. Here, we aimed to improve the homogeneous and heterogeneous cell fusion efficiency using a cell-cell attachment technique. We modified cellular membranes with two distinctive poly(ethylene glycol)-lipids (PEG-lipids) carrying oligopeptide, three repeated units of the EIAALEK and KIAALKE sequences (fuE3 and fuK3, respectively), which induce cell-cell attachment. The ratio and area of cell-cell attachment can be controlled through surface modification with fuE3-and fuK3-PEG-lipids by changing the number of each incorporated peptide. By combining this technique with the PEG-induced method, the cell fusion efficiency was significantly improved for homogeneous and heterogeneous cell fusion compared to conventional PEG-induced methods. For homogeneous CCRF-CEM cell fusion, the efficiency increased up to 64% from the 8.4% with the PEG-induced method. In addition, for heterogeneous cell fusion of myeloma cells and splenocytes, the efficiency increased up to 18% from almost zero. Thus, cell membrane fusion could be promoted effectively between closely contacted cell membranes induced by the cell-cell attachment technique.

Cell Fusion-Mediated Tissue Regeneration as an Inducer of Polyploidy and Aneuploidy

The biological phenomenon of cell fusion plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including wound healing and tissue regeneration. Here, it is assumed that bone marrow-derived stem cells (BMSCs) could adopt the specific properties of a different organ by cell fusion, thereby restoring organ function. Cell fusion first results in the production of bi- or multinucleated hybrid cells, which either remain as heterokaryons or undergo ploidy reduction/heterokaryon-to-synkaryon transition (HST), thereby giving rise to mononucleated daughter cells. This process is characterized by a merging of the chromosomes from the previously discrete nuclei and their subsequent random segregation into daughter cells. Due to extra centrosomes concomitant with multipolar spindles, the ploidy reduction/HST could also be associated with chromosome missegregation and, hence, induction of aneuploidy, genomic instability, and even putative chromothripsis. However, while the majority of such hybrids die or become senescent, aneuploidy and genomic instability appear to be tolerated in hepatocytes, possibly for stress-related adaption processes. Likewise, cell fusion-induced aneuploidy and genomic instability could also lead to a malignant conversion of hybrid cells. This can occur during tissue regeneration mediated by BMSC fusion in chronically inflamed tissue, which is a cell fusion-friendly environment, but is also enriched for mutagenic reactive oxygen and nitrogen species.

Intratumoral injection of hemagglutinating virus of Japan-envelope vector yielded an antitumor effect for advanced melanoma: a phase I/IIa clinical study

Hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ; Sendai virus) is an RNA virus that has cell fusion activity. HVJ-envelope (HVJ-E) is a UV-irradiated HVJ particle that loses viral replication and protein synthesis activity but retains cell fusion activity. We recently reported that HVJ-E has antitumor effects on several types of tumors. Here, we describe the results of a first-in-human phase I/IIa study in patients with advanced melanoma, receiving intratumoral administration of HVJ-E. The primary aim was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of HVJ-E, and the secondary aim was to examine the objective tumor response and antitumor immunity. Six patients with stage IIIC or IV progressive malignant melanoma with skin or lymph metastasis were enrolled. Patients were separated into two groups (n = 3 each) and received low and high doses of HVJ-E. Five of the six patients completed 4 weeks of follow-up evaluation; one patient discontinued treatment owing to progressive disease. Complete or partial responses were observed in 3 of 6 (50%) injected target lesions, 7 of 15 (47%) noninjected target lesions, and 10 of 21 (48%) target lesions. Induction of antitumor immunity was observed: activation of natural killer cells, a marked increase in interferon-γ levels in the peripheral blood, and infiltration of cytotoxic T cells into both injected and noninjected tumor lesions. Thus, intratumoral injection of HVJ-E in advanced melanoma patients showed safety and tolerability with local regression of the tumor mediated by antitumor immunity. The results suggest that HVJ-E might be a new treatment approach in patients with advanced melanoma.

Cancer immunotherapy using the Fusion gene of Sendai virus

Inactivated Sendai virus particle (or hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope; HVJ-E) has been previously reported to possess antitumour properties that activate antitumour immunity. Two glycoproteins, fusion (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN), are present on the surface of HVJ-E. HN is necessary for binding to receptors such as acidic gangliosides, and F induces membrane fusion by associating with membrane lipids. We previously reported that liposomes reconstituted with F but not HN showed antitumour activity by inducing IL-6 secretion in dendritic cells (DCs), suggesting that F protein is capable of eliciting antitumour activity. Here, we attempted to deliver F gene into tumour tissue in mice by electroporation and demonstrated that F gene therapy retarded tumour growth, increased CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell infiltration into tumours and induced tumour-specific IFN-γ T-cell response. However, neutralisation of IL-6R signalling did not impact F plasmid-mediated antitumour effect. Instead, we found that F plasmid treatment resulted in a significant increase in the secretion of the chemokine RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted) by tumour-infiltrating T cells. Neutralising antibody against RANTES abolished the antitumour effect of F plasmid treatment in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, F gene therapy may show promise as a novel therapeutic for single or combined cancer immunotherapy.

Boron-incorporating hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E) nanomaterial in boron neutron capture therapy

Combining immunotherapeutic and radiotherapeutic technique has recently attracted much attention for advancing cancer treatment. If boron-incorporated hemagglutinating virus of Japan-envelope (HVJ-E) having high membrane fusion ability can be used as a boron delivery agent in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), a radical synergistic improvement of boron accumulation efficiency into tumor cells and antitumor immunity may be induced. In this study, we aimed to develop novel boron-containing biocompatible polymers modified onto HVJ-E surfaces. The copolymer consisting of 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) and methacrylamide benzoxaborole (MAAmBO), poly[MPC-co-MAAmBO], was successfully synthesized by using a simple free radical polymerization. The molecular structures and molecular weight of the poly[MPC-co-MAAmBO] copolymer were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, respectively. The poly[MPC-co-MAAmBO] was coated onto the HVJ-E surface via the chemical bonding between the MAAmBO moiety and the sugar moiety of HVJ-E. DLS, AFM, UV-Vis, and fluorescence measurements clarified that the size of the poly[MPC-co-MAAmBO]-coated HVJ-E, HVJ-E/p[MPC-MAAmBO], to be about 130 ~ 150 nm in diameter, and that the polymer having 9.82 × 106 ~ 7 boron atoms was steadily coated on a single HVJ-E particle. Moreover, cellular uptake of poly[MPC-co-MAAmBO] could be demonstrated without cytotoxicity, and the hemolysis could be successfully suppressed by 20%. These results indicate that the HVJ-E/p[MPC-MAAmBO] may be used as boron nanocarriers in a combination of immunotherapy with BNCT.

Electrofusion by a bipolar pulsed electric field: Increased cell fusion efficiency for monoclonal antibody production

The excessive cell death rate caused by electrofusion with unipolar pulses (UPs) has been a bottleneck to increasing cell fusion efficiency in monoclonal antibody technology. Several studies have confirmed that compared with UPs, bipolar pulses (BPs) with microsecond pulse widths can increase electropermeabilization while reducing cell death. Given these characteristics, BPs were used to increase cell fusion efficiency in this study. Cell staining and hybridoma culture experiments were performed using SP2/0 mouse myeloma cells and lymphocytes. Based on the equal energy principle, UPs and BPs were delivered to electrodes at a distance of 3.81 mm, with electric field intensities ranging from 2 kV/cm to 3 kV/cm and pulse duration of 40 μs for the UPs and 20-20 μs for the BPs. The results of cell staining experiments showed that cell fusion efficiency was 3-fold greater with BPs than with UPs. Similarly, the results of the hybridoma culture experiments showed that the hybridoma yields were 0.26‰ and 0.23‰ (2.5 kV/cm and 3 kV/cm, respectively) in the UP groups and increased to 0.46‰ and 0.35‰ in the BP groups. Taken together, the results show that the efficiency of heterologous cell fusion can be greatly increased if BPs are used instead of the commonly applied UPs. This study may provide a promising method for monoclonal antibody technology.

Cell pairing and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated cell fusion using two-step centrifugation-assisted single-cell trapping (CAScT)

Here a convenient and effective strategy of two-step centrifugation-assisted single-cell trapping (CAScT) based on an addressable truncated cone-shaped microwell array (TCMA) chip is developed for cell pairing. We describe the operation principles of the method and demonstrate its compatibility with polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated cell fusion. Compared with other methods, most of which rely on sophisticated devices and bulky subsidiary equipment, our method is more convenient and exhibits better or comparable performance. Using this method, up to around 6000 heterotypic cell pairs can be formed and addressed within a small area of 1 cm2. The paired cells are then treated with fusogenic PEG for cell fusion. Compared with traditional protocols, cell fusion using this approach is well defined with better control, which leads to an improved yield of heterotypic binucleated hybrids. Furthermore, we demonstrate the capability of our device for long-term cell culture and cell harvesting.

Virus-stimulated neutrophils in the tumor microenvironment enhance T cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity

The tumor microenvironment (TME) fosters tumors by attenuating anti-tumor immunity, reinforcing tumor cell survival and increasing angiogenesis. Among the constituents of the TME, here, we focused on tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs). First, we found that the combination of poly I:C and inactivated Sendai virus particles (hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope; HVJ-E) synergistically suppressed tumor growth in the B16-F10 melanoma mouse model. In this model, poly I:C contributed to the recruitment of CD11b⁺Ly6G⁺ neutrophils to the TME, and co-injection of poly I:C and HVJ-E increased CD11b⁺Ly6G⁺FAS⁺ TAN in the TME. Depletion of neutrophils abolished the synergistic anti-tumor effect of HVJ-E and poly I:C in B16-F10 tumors. We revealed that C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CXCL2) is produced in the TME by poly I:C, but HVJ-E enhanced neutrophil infiltration of the TME does not occur. An anti-CXCL2 antibody inhibited the tumor suppression by HVJ-E+poly I:C. HVJ-E in combination with recombinant CXCL2 protein or CXCL2 pDNA suppressed mouse melanoma by increasing cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity against B16-F10 melanoma, which was abolished by an anti-Ly6G antibody. HVJ-E directly and indirectly increased FAS and ICAM-1 expression in cultured bone marrow-derived naïve neutrophils. Thus, HVJ-E activates anti-tumor immunity via anti-tumorigenic neutrophils in the TME. An HVJ-E vector containing the CXCL2 gene may be applicable as a novel cancer gene therapy strategy.

Cytoplasmic calcium increase via fusion with inactivated Sendai virus induces apoptosis in human multiple myeloma cells by downregulation of c-Myc oncogene

Because the emergence of drug resistance is a major limitation of current treatments for multiple myeloma (MM), it is necessary to continuously develop novel anticancer strategies. Here, using an inactivated Sendai virus (Hemagglutinating Virus of Japan; HVJ) envelope (HVJ-E), we discovered that increase of cytoplasmic Ca2+ by virus-cell fusion significantly induced apoptosis against human MM cells but not peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy donors. Interaction of F protein of HVJ-E with MM cells increased intracellular Ca2+ level of MMs by the induction of Ca2+ efflux from endoplasmic reticulum but not influx from extracellular region. The elevation of the Ca2+ cytoplasmic level induced SMAD1/5/8 phosphorylation and translocation into the nucleus, and SMAD1/5/8 and SMAD4 complex suppressed c-Myc transcription. Meanwhile, HVJ-E decreases S62 phosphorylation of c-Myc and promotes c-Myc protein degradation. Thus, HVJ-E-induced cell death of MM resulted from suppression of c-Myc by both destabilization of c-Myc protein and downregulation of c-Myc transcription. This study indicates that HVJ-E will be a promising tool for MM therapy.

Use of Human Hybridoma Technology To Isolate Human Monoclonal Antibodies

The human hybridoma technique offers an important approach for isolation of human monoclonal antibodies. A diversity of approaches can be used with varying success. Recent technical advances in expanding the starting number of human antigen-specific B cells, improving fusion efficiency, and isolating new myeloma partners and new cell cloning methods have enabled the development of protocols that make the isolation of human monoclonal antibodies from blood samples feasible. Undoubtedly, additional innovations that could improve efficiency are possible.

A pathway from chromosome transfer to engineering resulting in human and mouse artificial chromosomes for a variety of applications to bio-medical challenges

Microcell-mediated chromosome transfer (MMCT) is a technique to transfer a chromosome from defined donor cells into recipient cells and to manipulate chromosomes as gene delivery vectors and open a new avenue in somatic cell genetics. However, it is difficult to uncover the function of a single specific gene via the transfer of an entire chromosome or fragment, because each chromosome or fragment contains a set of numerous genes. Thus, alternative tools are human artificial chromosome (HAC) and mouse artificial chromosome (MAC) vectors, which can carry a gene or genes of interest. HACs/MACs have been generated mainly by either a "top-down approach" (engineered creation) or a "bottom-up approach" (de novo creation). HACs/MACs with one or more acceptor sites exhibit several characteristics required by an ideal gene delivery vector, including stable episomal maintenance and the capacity to carry large genomic loci plus their regulatory elements, thus allowing the physiological regulation of the introduced gene in a manner similar to that of native chromosomes. The MMCT technique is also applied for manipulating HACs and MACs in donor cells and delivering them to recipient cells. This review describes the lessons learned and prospects identified from studies on the construction of HACs and MACs, and their ability to drive exogenous gene expression in cultured cells and transgenic animals via MMCT. New avenues for a variety of applications to bio-medical challenges are also proposed.

All roads lead to induced pluripotent stem cells: the technologies of iPSC generation

Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) via the ectopic expression of reprogramming factors is a simple, advanced, yet often perplexing technology due to low efficiency, slow kinetics, and the use of numerous distinct systems for factor delivery. Scientists have used almost all available approaches for the delivery of reprogramming factors. Even the well-established retroviral vectors confuse some scientists due to different tropisms in use. The canonical virus-based reprogramming poses many problems, including insertional mutagenesis, residual expression and re-activation of reprogramming factors, uncontrolled silencing of transgenes, apoptosis, cell senescence, and strong immunogenicity. To eliminate or alleviate these problems, scientists have tried various other approaches for factor delivery and transgene removal. These include transient transfection, nonintegrating viral vectors, Cre-loxP excision of transgenes, excisable transposon, protein transduction, RNA transfection, microRNA transfection, RNA virion, RNA replicon, nonintegrating replicating episomal plasmids, minicircles, polycistron, and preintegration of inducible reprogramming factors. These alternative approaches have their own limitations. Even iPSCs generated with RNA approaches should be screened for possible transgene insertions mediated by active endogenous retroviruses in the human genome. Even experienced researchers may encounter difficulty in selecting and using these different technologies. This survey presents overviews of iPSC technologies with the intention to provide a quick yet comprehensive reference for both new and experienced reprogrammers.

Accumulation of cytosolic calcium induces necroptotic cell death in human neuroblastoma

Necrosis has been studied extensively since the early days of medicine, with some patterns of necrosis found to be programmed like apoptotic cell death. However, mechanisms of programmed necrosis (necroptosis) are yet to be fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated how the hemagglutinating virus of Japan-envelope (HVJ-E) induces necrosis in mouse xenografts of human neuroblastoma cells. HVJ-E-induced necrosis in this system was found to depend on phosphorylation of the death receptor kinase receptor interacting protein kinase 1 (RIP1) and on the production of reactive oxygen species. This process was interpreted as necroptosis, based on its suppression by the small molecule necrostatin-1, and it did not involve the TNF-α receptor pathway. We also demonstrated that increased concentrations of cytoplasmic calcium triggered necroptosis by activating calcium-calmodulin kinase (CaMK) II. Finally, we determined that RIP1 phosphorylation was mediated by CaMK II activation. Together, our results define an upstream pathway for the activation of necroptosis in neuroblastoma cells, with potential therapeutic implications.

Virosome presents multimodel cancer therapy without viral replication

A virosome is an artificial envelope that includes viral surface proteins and lacks the ability to produce progeny virus. Virosomes are able to introduce an encapsulated macromolecule into the cytoplasm of cells using their viral envelope fusion ability. Moreover, virus-derived factors have an adjuvant effect for immune stimulation. Therefore, many virosomes have been utilized as drug delivery vectors and adjuvants for cancer therapy. This paper introduces the application of virosomes for cancer treatment. In Particular, we focus on virosomes derived from the influenza and Sendai viruses which have been widely used for cancer therapy. Influenza virosomes have been mainly applied as drug delivery vectors and adjuvants. By contrast, the Sendai virosomes have been mainly applied as anticancer immune activators and apoptosis inducers.

Recent advances and developments in the antitumor effect of the HVJ envelope vector on malignant melanoma: from the bench to clinical application

Inactivated Sendai virus particles (hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope; HVJ-E) are considered to be safe and efficient non-viral vectors used for drug delivery, since they can incorporate DNA, RNA, proteins and drugs. We have recently found that HVJ-E has a novel antitumor immune effect using a colon cancer model. HVJ-E has also been shown to have both direct and immune-mediated indirect actions against malignancy. Intratumoral injection of an inactivated HVJ-E solution significantly reduced the tumor volume and prevented spontaneous lung metastasis, leading to an increased overall survival in C57/BL6 mice transplanted with B16/BL6 mouse melanoma cells, and even in immunodeficient mice transplanted with Mewo human melanoma cells. No severe adverse effects including laboratory data abnormalities or anaphylactic reactions were observed. The comprehensive mechanism(s) underlying the immunological effects of HVJ-E appear to include not only enhanced effector T cell- and/or natural killer (NK) cell-mediated immunity, but also rescue from regulatory T cell (Treg)-mediated immunosuppression, presumably through the interleukin-6 secretion from dendritic cells stimulated by HVJ-E. Since a protocol for a clinical study of HVJ-E in malignant melanoma was approved in 2009 by the ethics committee of Osaka University and of the Medical Center for Translational Research in Osaka University Hospital, a phase I/IIa study for advanced malignant melanoma patients was just started. In this review, we show several favorable results regarding the antitumor effects of HVJ-E and describe the novel mechanism underlying this tumor immune response. Since we are conducting a phase I/IIa clinical trial using HVJ-E in advanced melanoma patients on the basis of preclinical results, detailed clinical information and immune-monitoring data are also introduced. The development of new therapeutic modalities for advanced melanoma patients is urgently needed, and we hope that HVJ-E may provide one such treatment.

A novel photodynamic therapy for drug-resistant prostate cancer cells using porphyrus envelope as a novel photosensitizer

BACKGROUND

In the clinic, it is often very difficult to treat drug-resistant advanced prostate cancer by conventional treatments. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive treatment that takes advantage of photochemical reactions between a photosensitizer and light. On the basis of several of its key characteristics, PDT is considered to be a promising novel method for treating drug-resistant prostate cancer.

OBJECTIVES

For effective treatment of drug-resistant prostate cancer, we developed a novel agent termed porphyrus envelope, which was produced from PpIX lipid and hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We inserted PpIX lipid into HVJ-E by centrifugation, and used the resultant porphyrus envelope in PDT of two drug-resistant prostate cancer cell lines, PC-3 and PC-3-DR.

RESULTS

Porphyrus envelope enhanced uptake of PpIX, and cytotoxicity of PDT, relative to free PpIX lipid or PpIX induced by 5-ALA.

CONCLUSION

PDT using porphyrus envelope has potential as a method for treating drug-resistant prostate cancer.

Development of Sendai virus vectors and their potential applications in gene therapy and regenerative medicine

Gene delivery/expression vectors have been used as fundamental technologies in gene therapy since the 1980s. These technologies are also being applied in regenerative medicine as tools to reprogram cell genomes to a pluripotent state and to other cell lineages. Rapid progress in these new research areas and expectations for their translation into clinical applications have facilitated the development of more sophisticated gene delivery/expression technologies. Since its isolation in 1953 in Japan, Sendai virus (SeV) has been widely used as a research tool in cell biology and in industry, but the application of SeV as a recombinant viral vector has been investigated only recently. Recombinant SeV vectors have various unique characteristics, such as low pathogenicity, powerful capacity for gene expression and a wide host range. In addition, the cytoplasmic gene expression mediated by this vector is advantageous for applications, in that chromosomal integration of exogenous genes can be undesirable. In this review, we introduce a brief historical background on the development of recombinant SeV vectors and describe their current applications in gene therapy. We also describe the application of SeV vectors in advanced nuclear reprogramming and introduce a defective and persistent SeV vector (SeVdp) optimized for such reprogramming.

Expert opinion in biological therapy: update on developments in lung gene transfer

INTRODUCTION

Gene therapy may be suitable for a large number of acquired and inherited lung diseases, and research efforts in the field are vast. Although gene transfer to the lung has proven more challenging than initially anticipated, significant progress has been made over the last 10 years.

AREAS COVERED

Here, we will first review viral and non-viral gene transfer agents that have been assessed for lung gene therapy and discuss key barriers to pulmonary gene transfer. We will then review progress in gene therapy for various lung diseases.

EXPERT OPINION

In our view, one of the most significant developments in recent years is the generation of lentiviral vectors which efficiently transduce lung tissue. Focused and coordinated efforts assessing lentivirus safety and scaling up lentivirus production will be required to move this vector into clinical lung gene therapy studies. Although market authorization for a lung gene therapy product is not yet available, we are optimistic that this key milestone can be achieved in the next few years.

13-Cis retinoic acid can enhance the antitumor activity of non-replicating Sendai virus particle against neuroblastoma

Hemagglutinating virus of Japan-envelope (HVJ-E) is a drug delivery vector based on inactivated Sendai virus. Recently, antitumor activities were found for HVJ-E itself and clinical trials of HVJ-E for some malignant tumors are now ongoing. We investigated the in vitro and in vivo antitumor effects of HVJ-E against neuroblastoma, which is one of the most common malignant solid tumors in childhood. The sensitivity of human neuroblastoma cell lines to HVJ-E correlated with the expression level of gangliosides, Sialylparagloboside (SPG) and GD1a, receptors for HVJ. Among the cell lines, SK-N-SH was the most sensitive to HVJ-E in vitro and total SPG and GD1a expression was the highest. Complete eradication of subcutaneous tumors derived from SK-N-SH cells was achieved by intratumoral injection of HVJ-E in SCID mice and no recurrence was observed for more than 300 days after HVJ-E inoculation. In contrast, NB1 cells expressed the lowest amount of GD1a and SPG and were resistant to HVJ-E in vitro. The expression of GD1a increased by 13-cis retinoic acid (13cRA), which is a therapeutic drug for high risk neuroblastoma, thus leading to an improved sensitivity to HVJ-E in vitro. Only growth inhibition of the subcutaneous tumors derived from NB1 cells was achieved by HVJ-E in the SCID mice, but the combination of 13cRA and HVJ-E could achieve partial eradication of the xenograft and also lead to an improved prognosis. In conclusion, HVJ-E is a promising therapeutic modality for neuroblastoma and 13cRA can be used as an adjuvant to HVJ-E.

In vitro investigation of efficient photodynamic therapy using a nonviral vector; hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a photochemical modality approved for cancer treatment. PDT has demonstrated efficacy in early stage lung cancer and esophageal cancer. The accumulation of photosensitizers in cancer cells is necessary to enhance the therapeutic benefits of PDT; however, photosensitizers have low uptake efficiency. To overcome this limitation, a drug delivery system, such as the hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E) vector, is required. In this study, the combination of PDT and HVJ-E was investigated for enhancing the efficacy of PDT. The photosensitizers that were evaluated included 5-aminolaevulinic acid (5-ALA), protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), and HVJ-PPIX. The uptake of the photosensitizers as increased twenty-fold with the addition of HVJ-E. The cytotoxicity of conventional 5-ALA was enhanced by the addition of HVJ-E vector. In conclusion, HVJ-E vector improved the uptake of photosensitizers and the PDT effect.

In vitro investigation of efficient photodynamic therapy using a nonviral vector; hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a photochemical modality approved for cancer treatment. PDT has demonstrated efficacy in early stage lung cancer and esophageal cancer. The accumulation of photosensitizers in cancer cells is necessary to enhance the therapeutic benefits of PDT; however, photosensitizers have low uptake efficiency. To overcome this limitation, a drug delivery system, such as the hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E) vector, is required. In this study, the combination of PDT and HVJ-E was investigated for enhancing the efficacy of PDT. The photosensitizers that were evaluated included 5-aminolaevulinic acid (5-ALA), protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), and HVJ-PPIX. The uptake of the photosensitizers as increased twenty-fold with the addition of HVJ-E. The cytotoxicity of conventional 5-ALA was enhanced by the addition of HVJ-E vector. In conclusion, HVJ-E vector improved the uptake of photosensitizers and the PDT effect.

HVJ liposomes and HVJ envelope vectors

This protocol describes techniques for construction of fusion-mediated vectors based on inactivated HVJ (hemagglutinating virus of Japan; Sendai virus). HVJ liposomes are constructed by fusing liposomes containing DNA with inactivated HVJ. The HVJ envelope vector, a more simplified vector, incorporates DNA into inactivated HVJ particles without liposomes. Both vectors have many advantages. They can be used to introduce proteins, peptides, oligonucleotides (including antisense oligonucleotides, decoy oligonucleotides, and ribozymes), and short interfering RNA (siRNA), as well as plasmid DNA, into cultured cells in vitro and into organs in vivo. Fusion-mediated delivery avoids the degradation of therapeutic molecules before reaching the cytoplasm. Finally, repeated injection of the vector in vivo is not inhibited and even enhances the effects of the delivered molecules. These vectors have been used in many gene therapy experiments in animal models to address problems such as liver cirrhosis, hearing impairment, ischemic brain damage, peripheral arterial diseases, and cancers. This protocol describes methods for the preparation of HVJ liposomes and of HVJ envelope vectors and their use in delivery of plasmid DNA into various cells and tissues.

V-fusion: a convenient, nontoxic method for cell fusion

Cell-to-cell fusion (cell fusion) is a fundamental biological process that also has been used as a versatile experimental tool to dissect a variety of cellular mechanisms, including the consequences of cell fusion itself, and to produce cells with desired properties, such as hybridomas and reprogrammed progenitors. However, current methods of cell fusion are not satisfactory because of their toxicity, inefficiency, or lack of flexibility. We describe a simple, versatile, scalable, and nontoxic approach that we call V-fusion, as it is based on the ability of the vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV-G), a viral fusogen of broad tropism, to become rapidly and reversibly activated. We suggest that this approach will benefit a broad array of studies that investigate consequences of cell fusion or use cell fusion as an experimental tool.

Efficient in vivo delivery of plasmids and oligonucleotides using hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E) vector in immunological disease models

This unit describes a method for in vivo delivery of oligonucleotides or plasmids using the hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E), an inactivated Sendai virus particle, as a delivery system. Viral transfection methods generally show a higher transfection efficiency than nonviral methods for the delivery of genes to cells. However, in using these methods one must bear in mind that the introduction of a virus particle into a host carries a risk for leukemia induction and for creation of disturbances in immune function due to cytotoxicity.

Update on non-viral delivery methods for cancer therapy: possibilities of a drug delivery system with anticancer activities beyond delivery as a new therapeutic tool

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD

Cancer is the most formidable human disease. Owing to the heterogeneity of cancer, a single-treatment modality is insufficient for the complete elimination of cancer cells. Therapeutic strategies from various aspects are needed for cancer therapy. These therapeutic agents should be carefully selected to enhance multiple therapeutic pathways. Non-viral delivery methods have been utilized to enhance the tumor-selective delivery of therapeutic molecules, including proteins, synthetic oligonucleotides, small compounds and genes.

AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW

As non-viral delivery methods, liposomes and polymer-based delivery materials to target tumors mainly by systemic delivery, physical methods including electroporation, sonoporation, and so on, to locally inject therapeutic molecules, and virosomes to use the viral infectious machinery for the delivery of therapeutic molecules are summarized.

WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN

This article aims to provide an overview of the characteristic properties of each non-viral vector. It will be beneficial to utilize appropriately the vector for cancer treatment.

TAKE HOME MESSAGE

Efficient and minimally invasive vectors are generally considered to be the ideal drug delivery system (DDS). However, against cancer, DDS equipped with antitumor activities may be a therapeutic choice. By combining therapeutic molecules with DDS having antitumor activities, enhancement of the multiple therapeutic pathways may be achieved.

Pseudovirions as vehicles for the delivery of siRNA

Over the last two decades, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated gene silencing has quickly become one of the most powerful techniques used to study gene function in vitro and a promising area for new therapeutics. Delivery remains a significant impediment to realizing the therapeutic potential of siRNA, a problem that is also tied to immunogenicity and toxicity. Numerous delivery vehicles have been developed, including some that can be categorized as pseudovirions: these are vectors that are directly derived from viruses but whose viral coding sequences have been eliminated, preventing their classification as viral vectors. Characteristics of the pseudovirions discussed in this review, namely phagemids, HSV amplicons, SV40 in vitro-packaged vectors, influenza virosomes, and HVJ-Envelope vectors, make them attractive for the delivery of siRNA-based therapeutics. Pseudovirions were shown to deliver siRNA effector molecules and bring about RNA interference (RNAi) in various cell types in vitro, and in vivo using immune-deficient and immune-competent mouse models. Levels of silencing were not always determined directly, but the duration of siRNA-induced knockdown lasted at least 3 days. We present examples of the use of pseudovirions for the delivery of synthetic siRNA as well as the delivery and expression of DNA-directed siRNA.

Efficient eradication of hormone-resistant human prostate cancers by inactivated Sendai virus particle

Hormone-refractory prostate cancer is one of the intractable human cancers in the world. Here, we examined the direct tumor-killing activity of inactivated Sendai virus particle [hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E)] through induction of Type I interferon (IFN) in the hormone-resistant human prostate cancer cell lines PC3 and DU145. Preferential binding of HVJ-E to PC3 and DU145 over hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cell and normal prostate epithelium was observed, resulting in a number of fused cells. After HVJ-E treatment, a number of IFN-related genes were up-regulated, resulting in Type I IFN production in PC3 cells. Then, retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) helicase which activates Type I IFN expression after Sendai virus infection was up-regulated in cancer cells after HVJ-E treatment. Produced IFN-alpha and -beta enhanced caspase 8 expression via Janus kinases/Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription pathway, activated caspase 3 and induced apoptosis in cancer cells. When HVJ-E was directly injected into a mass of PC3 tumor cells in SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency) mice, a marked reduction in the bulk of each tumor mass was observed and 85% of the mice became tumor-free. Although co-injection of an anti-asialo GM1 antibody with HVJ-E into each tumor mass slightly attenuated the tumor suppressive activity of HVJ-E, significant suppression of tumor growth was observed even in the presence of anti-asialo GM1 antibody. This suggests that natural killer cell activation made small contribution to tumor regression following HVJ-E treatment in hormone-resistant prostate cancer model in vivo. Thus, HVJ-E effectively targets hormone-resistant prostate cancer by inducing apoptosis in tumor cells, as well as activating anti-tumor immunity.

Cytoskeleton reorganization in influenza hemagglutinin-initiated syncytium formation

Little is known about the mechanisms of cell-cell fusion in development and diseases and, especially, about fusion stages downstream of an opening of nascent fusion pore(s). Earlier works on different cell-cell fusion reactions have indicated that cytoskeleton plays important role in syncytium formation. However, due to complexity of these reactions and multifaceted contributions of cytoskeleton in cell physiology, it has remained unclear whether cytoskeleton directly drives fusion pore expansion or affects preceding fusion stages. Here we explore cellular reorganization associated with fusion pore expansion in syncytium formation using relatively simple experimental system. Fusion between murine embryonic fibroblasts NIH3T3-based cells is initiated on demand by well-characterized fusogen influenza virus hemagglutinin. We uncouple early fusion stages dependent on protein fusogens from subsequent fusion pore expansion stage and establish that the transition from local fusion to syncytium requires metabolic activity of living cells. Effective syncytium formation for cells with disorganized actin and microtubule cytoskeleton argues against hypothesis that cytoskeleton drives fusion expansion.

HVJ envelope vector, a versatile delivery system: its development, application, and perspectives

An efficient and minimally invasive vector system is the "bottle neck" of both gene transfer and drug delivery. Numerous viral and non-viral (synthetic) delivery systems have been developed and improved. Hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ, Sendai virus) envelope vector is a novel and unique system which combined the advantages of viral and non-viral vectors with the following features and advantages: (1) safe and easy as a "non-viral" transfection reagent; (2) delivery of various molecules including plasmid DNA, siRNA, protein, antisense oligonucleotide; (3) wide usability from in vitro to in vivo. In this review, the development, application, and perspectives of the HVJ envelope vector will be discussed.

Intratumoral injection of inactivated Sendai virus particles elicits strong antitumor activity by enhancing local CXCL10 expression and systemic NK cell activation

We have already demonstrated that inactivated, replication-defective Sendai virus particles (HVJ-E) have a powerful antitumor effect by both the generation of tumor-specific cytotoxic T cells and inhibition of regulatory T cell activity. Here, we report that HVJ-E also has an antitumor effect through non-T cell immunity. Microarray analysis revealed that direct injection of HVJ-E induced the expression of CXCL10 in established Renca tumors. CXCL10 was secreted by dendritic cells in the tumors after HVJ-E injection. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry revealed that CXCR3+ cells (predominantly NK cells) infiltrated the HVJ-E-injected tumors. Moreover, HVJ-E injection caused systemic activation of NK cells and enhanced their cytotoxity against tumor cells. In an in vivo experiment, approximately 50% of tumors were eradicated by HVJ-E injection, and this activity of HVJ-E against Renca tumors was largely abolished by NK cell depletion using anti-asialo GM1 antibody. Since HVJ-E injection induced systemic antitumor immunity by enhancing or correcting the chemokine-chemokine receptor axis, it might be a potential new therapy for cancer.

Non-viral gene transfection technologies for genetic engineering of stem cells

The recent rapid progress of molecular biology together with the steady progress of genome projects has given us some essential and revolutionary information about DNA and RNA to elucidate various biological phenomena at a genetic level. Under these circumstances, the technology and methodology of gene transfection have become more and more important to enhance the efficacy of gene therapy for several diseases. In addition, gene transfection is a fundamental technology indispensable to the further research development of basic biology and medicine regarding stem cells. Stem cells genetically manipulated will enhance the therapeutic efficacy of cell transplantation. In this paper, the carrier and technology of gene delivery are briefly overviewed while the applications to the basic researches of biology and medicine as well as regenerative medical therapy are introduced. A new non-viral carrier and the cell culture system are described to efficiently manipulate stem cells.

Development of Tissue-Targeting Hemagglutinating Virus of Japan Envelope Vector for Successful Delivery of Therapeutic Gene to Mouse Skin

We report a novel strategy for constructing a tissue-targeting hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ; Sendai virus) envelope vector (HVJ-E), and its application in gene therapy of a mouse model of genetic skin disease. Chimeric genes encoding viral F protein and green fluorescent protein (GFP) were constructed on the basis of various deletion mutants. The product of one chimeric gene, containing signal peptide, transmembrane domain, and the cytoplasmic tail of F protein, was transported to the cell surface and incorporated into new viruses released from HVJ-infected LLC-MK2 cells. For tissue targeting, in the preceding construct GFP was replaced with single-chain antibody (scFv) against mouse desmoglein 3 (mDsg3), a desmosomal cadherin found in basal layer keratinocytes of the skin. HVJ encoding scFv-F chimeric protein bound to mDsg3-coated plates much more efficiently than did wild-type HVJ. When chimeric HVJ was injected into a skin blister of a mouse model of epidermolysis bullosa, in which defective expression of type VII collagen results in a failure to secure epidermis to the underlying dermis, viral F protein expression was detected in most of the basal keratinocytes. Furthermore, chimeric HVJ-E introduced type VII collagen expression more efficiently compared with wild-type HVJ in basal keratinocytes of type VII collagen-deficient mouse skin, resulting in efficient amelioration of the genetic defect. Thus, a novel tissue-targeting HVJ-E could be used to successfully target epidermal keratinocytes both in vitro and in vivo.

Rapid transport of plasmid DNA into the nucleolus via actin depolymerization using the HVJ envelope vector

BACKGROUND

Although nuclear transport of therapeutic genes is an essential requirement of human gene therapy, factors required for nuclear entry of DNA remain to be elucidated. Non-viral vector systems have led to numerous improvements in the efficiency of delivery of exogenous DNA into cells. However, nuclear transport of plasmid is difficult to achieve.

METHODS

We examined nuclear translocation efficiency of Cy3-labeled plasmid DNA (Cy3-pDNA) delivered by the hemagglutinating virus of Japan envelope (HVJ-E) vector, Lipofectamine or microinjection. We also examined the effect of actin depolymerization on nuclear transport of Cy3-pDNA.

RESULTS

Cy3-pDNA reached the nucleus, particularly in the nucleolus, in 30 min after fusion-mediated delivery using the HVJ-E vector, while the DNA was retained in the cytoplasm during the observed period after the delivery by cationic liposomes. HVJ-E treatment transiently depolymerized actin filaments, and acceleration of nucleolar entry of microinjected DNA was achieved when treated with either empty HVJ-E or cytochalasin D, an inhibitor of actin depolymerization, prior to microinjection.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that plasmid DNA can be transported rapidly from the cytoplasm to the nucleolus when actin filaments are depolymerized. Thus, the HVJ-E vector can accelerate the transport of DNA to the nucleolus by actin depolymerization.