Identification of a small RNA containing the trypanosome spliced leader: a donor of shared 5' sequences of trypanosomatid mRNAs?

RNA exon editing: Splicing the way to treat human diseases

RNA exon editing is a therapeutic strategy for correcting disease-causing mutations by inducing trans-splicing between a synthetic RNA molecule and an endogenous pre-mRNA target, resulting in functionally restored mRNA and protein. This approach enables the replacement of exons at the kilobase scale, addresses multiple mutations with a single therapy, and maintains native gene expression without changes to DNA. For genes larger than 5 kb, RNA exon editors can be delivered in a single vector despite AAV capacity limitations because only mutated exons need to be replaced. While correcting mutations by trans-splicing has been previously demonstrated, prior attempts were hampered by low efficiency or lack of translation in preclinical models. Advances in synthetic biology, next-generation sequencing, and bioinformatics, with a deeper understanding of mechanisms controlling RNA splicing, have triggered a re-emergence of trans-splicing and the development of new RNA exon editing molecules for treating human disease, including the first application in a clinical trial (this study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov [NCT06467344]). Here, we provide an overview of RNA splicing, the history of trans-splicing, previously reported therapeutic applications, and how modern advances are enabling the discovery of RNA exon editing molecules for genetic targets unable to be addressed by conventional gene therapy and gene editing approaches.

Cell-cell communication in African trypanosomes

Years of research have shown us that unicellular organisms do not exist entirely in isolation, but rather that they are capable of an altogether far more sociable way of living. Single cells produce, receive and interpret signals, coordinating and changing their behaviour according to the information received. Although this cell-cell communication has long been considered the norm in the bacterial world, an increasing body of knowledge is demonstrating that single-celled eukaryotic parasites also maintain active social lives. This communication can drive parasite development, facilitate the invasion of new niches and, ultimately, influence infection outcome. In this review, I present the evidence for cell-cell communication during the life cycle of the African trypanosomes, from their mammalian hosts to their insect vectors, and reflect on the many remaining unanswered questions in this fascinating field.

Current Status of Regulatory Non-Coding RNAs Research in the Tritryp

Trypanosomatids are protozoan parasites that cause devastating vector-borne human diseases. Gene expression regulation of these organisms depends on post-transcriptional control in responding to diverse environments while going through multiple developmental stages of their complex life cycles. In this scenario, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are excellent candidates for a very efficient, quick, and economic strategy to regulate gene expression. The advent of high throughput RNA sequencing technologies show the presence and deregulation of small RNA fragments derived from canonical ncRNAs. This review seeks to depict the ncRNA landscape in trypanosomatids, focusing on the small RNA fragments derived from functional RNA molecules observed in RNA sequencing studies. Small RNA fragments derived from canonical ncRNAs (tsRNAs, snsRNAs, sdRNAs, and sdrRNAs) were identified in trypanosomatids. Some of these RNAs display changes in their levels associated with different environments and developmental stages, demanding further studies to determine their functional characterization and potential roles. Nevertheless, a comprehensive and detailed ncRNA annotation for most trypanosomatid genomes is still needed, allowing better and more extensive comparative and functional studies.

High-resolution analysis of multi-copy variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites in African trypanosomes

Background

African trypanosomes cause lethal diseases in humans and animals and escape host immune attack by switching the expression of Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) genes. The expressed VSGs are located at the ends of telomeric, polycistronic transcription units known as VSG expression sites (VSG-ESs). Each cell has many VSG-ESs but only one is transcribed in bloodstream-form parasites and all of them are inactive upon transmission to the insect vector mid-gut; a subset of monocistronic metacyclic VSG-ESs are then activated in the insect salivary gland. Deep-sequence analyses have been informative but assigning sequences to individual VSG-ESs has been challenging because they each contain closely related expression-site associated genes, or ESAGs, thought to contribute to virulence.

Results

We utilised ART, an in silico short read simulator to demonstrate the feasibility of accurately aligning reads to VSG-ESs. Then, using high-resolution transcriptomes from isogenic bloodstream and insect-stage Lister 427 Trypanosoma brucei, we uncover increased abundance in the insect mid-gut stage of mRNAs from metacyclic VSG-ESs and of mRNAs from the unusual ESAG, ESAG10. Further, we show that the silencing associated with allelic exclusion involves repression focussed at the ends of the VSG-ESs. We also use the approach to report relative fitness costs following ESAG RNAi from a genome-scale screen.

Conclusions

By assigning sequences to individual VSG-ESs we provide new insights into VSG-ES transcription control, allelic exclusion and impacts on fitness. Thus, deeper insights into the expression and function of regulated multi-gene families are more accessible than previously anticipated.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-3154-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Molecular cloning and characterization of SL3: a stem cell-specific SL RNA from the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea

Spliced leader (SL) trans-splicing is a biological phenomenon, common among many metazoan taxa, consisting in the transfer of a short leader sequence from a small SL RNA to the 5' end of a subset of pre-mRNAs. While knowledge of the biochemical mechanisms driving this process has accumulated over the years, the functional consequences of such post-transcriptional event at the organismal level remain unclear. In addition, the fact that functional analyses have been undertaken mainly in trypanosomes and nematodes leaves a somehow fragmented picture of the possible biological significance and evolution of SL trans-splicing in eukaryotes. Here, we analyzed the spatial expression of SL RNAs in the planarian flatworm Schmidtea mediterranea, with the goal of identifying novel developmental paradigms for the study of trans-splicing in metazoans. Besides the previously identified SL1 and SL2, S. mediterranea expresses a third SL RNA described here as SL3. While, SL1 and SL2 are collectively expressed in a broad range of planarian cell types, SL3 is highly enriched in a subset of the planarian stem cells engaged in regenerative responses. Our findings provide new opportunities to study how trans-splicing may regulate the phenotype of a cell.

TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT STRUCTURAL VARIABILITY OF RNAs: SPLICED LEADER RNAs AND THEIR EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY

The structures attained by RNA molecules depend not only on their sequence but also on environmental parameters such as their temperature. So far, this effect has been largely neglected in bioinformatics studies. Here, we show that structural comparisons can be facilitated and more coherent structural models can be obtained when differences in environmental parameters are taken into account. We re-evaluate the secondary structures of the spliced leader (SL) RNAs from the seven eukaryotic phyla in which SL RNA trans-splicing has been described. Adjusting structure prediction to the natural growth temperatures and considering energetically similar secondary structures, we observe striking similarities among Euglenida, Kinetoplastida, Dinophyceae, Cnidaria, Rotifera, Nematoda, Platyhelminthes, and Tunicata that cannot be explained easily by the independent innovation of SL RNAs in each of these phyla. Supplementary Table is available at .

Gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei: lessons from high-throughput RNA sequencing

Trypanosoma brucei undergoes major biochemical and morphological changes during its development from the bloodstream form in the mammalian host to the procyclic form in the midgut of its insect host. The underlying regulation of gene expression, however, is poorly understood. More than 60% of the predicted genes remain annotated as hypothetical, and the 5' and 3' untranslated regions important for regulation of gene expression are unknown for >90% of the genes. In this review, we compare the data from four recently published high-throughput RNA sequencing studies in light of the different experimental setups and discuss how these data can enhance genome annotation and give insights into the regulation of gene expression in T. brucei.

Analysis of a botryllid enriched-full-length cDNA library: insight into the evolution of spliced leader trans-splicing in tunicates

In some animals, mRNA may be modified after transcription by the addition of a 5' spliced leader sequence. This is known as spliced leader (SL) trans-splicing, and is of uncertain function and evolutionary origin. Here, we report the identification of SL trans-splicing in the colonial ascidian Botryllus schlosseri. Combining our own expressed sequence tag (EST) data with additional data from GenBank, we identify the dominant spliced leader sequence and show it to be similar to that of other ascidians and to that of Oikopleura dioica, a basally diverging tunicate. Gene Ontology analysis of B. schlosseri ESTs with and without a 5' spliced leader shows that genes encoding ribosomal proteins tend not to be trans-spliced, a character shared with the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. We also examine individual cases of genes that produce mRNAs that are SL trans-spliced in B. schlosseri but not in C. intestinalis. We conclude that SL trans-splicing evolved early in the tunicate lineage and shows stability over considerable evolutionary time. However, SL trans-splicing may be gained or lost in individual genes.

The pre-mRNA splicing machinery of trypanosomes: complex or simplified?

Trypanosomatids are early-diverged, protistan parasites of which Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and several species of Leishmania cause severe, often lethal diseases in humans. To better combat these parasites, their molecular biology has been a research focus for more than 3 decades, and the discovery of spliced leader (SL) trans splicing in T. brucei established a key difference between parasites and hosts. In SL trans splicing, the capped 5'-terminal region of the small nuclear SL RNA is fused onto the 5' end of each mRNA. This process, in conjunction with polyadenylation, generates individual mRNAs from polycistronic precursors and creates functional mRNA by providing the cap structure. The reaction is a two-step transesterification process analogous to intron removal by cis splicing which, in trypanosomatids, is confined to very few pre-mRNAs. Both types of pre-mRNA splicing are carried out by the spliceosome, consisting of five U-rich small nuclear RNAs (U snRNAs) and, in humans, up to approximately 170 different proteins. While trypanosomatids possess a full set of spliceosomal U snRNAs, only a few splicing factors were identified by standard genome annotation because trypanosomatid amino acid sequences are among the most divergent in the eukaryotic kingdom. This review focuses on recent progress made in the characterization of the splicing factor repertoire in T. brucei, achieved by tandem affinity purification of splicing complexes, by systematic analysis of proteins containing RNA recognition motifs, and by mining the genome database. In addition, recent findings about functional differences between trypanosome and human pre-mRNA splicing factors are discussed.

SL RNA genes of the ascidian tunicates Ciona intestinalis and Ciona savignyi

We characterized by bioinformatics the trans-spliced leader donor RNA (SL RNA) genes of two ascidians, Ciona intestinalis and Ciona savignyi. The Ciona intestinalis genome contains approximately 670 copies of the SL RNA gene, principally on a 264-bp tandemly repeated element. Fluorescent in-situ hybridization mapped most of the repeats to a single site on the short arm of chromosome 8. The Ciona intestinalis genome also contains approximately 100 copies of a >3.6-kb element that carries 1) an SL RNA-related sequence (possible a pseudogene) and 2) genes for the U6 snRNA and a histone-like protein. The Ciona savignyi genome contains two SL RNA gene classes having the same SL sequence as Ciona intestinalis but differing in the intron-like segments. These reside in similar but distinct repeat units of 575 bp ( approximately 410 copies) and 552 bp ( approximately 250 copies) that are arranged as separate tandem repeats. In neither Ciona species is the 5S RNA gene present within the SL RNA gene repeat unit. Although the number of SL RNA genes is similar, there is little sequence similarity between the intestinalis and savignyi repeat units, apart from the region encoding the SL RNA itself. This suggests that cis-regulatory elements involved in transcription and 3'-end processing are likely to be present within the transcribed region. The genomes of both Ciona species also include > 100 dispersed short elements containing the 16-nt SL sequence and up to 6 additional nucleotides of the SL RNA sequence.

Genome-wide analysis of mRNA abundance in two life-cycle stages of Trypanosoma brucei and identification of splicing and polyadenylation sites

Transcription of protein-coding genes in trypanosomes is polycistronic and gene expression is primarily regulated by post-transcriptional mechanisms. Sequence motifs in the untranslated regions regulate mRNA trans-splicing and RNA stability, yet where UTRs begin and end is known for very few genes. We used high-throughput RNA-sequencing to determine the genome-wide steady-state mRNA levels (‘transcriptomes’) for ∼90% of the genome in two stages of the Trypanosoma brucei life cycle cultured in vitro. Almost 6% of genes were differentially expressed between the two life-cycle stages. We identified 5′ splice-acceptor sites (SAS) and polyadenylation sites (PAS) for 6959 and 5948 genes, respectively. Most genes have between one and three alternative SAS, but PAS are more dispersed. For 488 genes, SAS were identified downstream of the originally assigned initiator ATG, so a subsequent in-frame ATG presumably designates the start of the true coding sequence. In some cases, alternative SAS would give rise to mRNAs encoding proteins with different N-terminal sequences. We could identify the introns in two genes known to contain them, but found no additional genes with introns. Our study demonstrates the usefulness of the RNA-seq technology to study the transcriptional landscape of an organism whose genome has not been fully annotated.

Alanine aminotransferase of Trypanosoma brucei--a key role in proline metabolism in procyclic life forms

African trypanosomes possess high levels of alanine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.2), although the function of their activity remains enigmatic, especially in slender bloodstream forms where the metabolism of ketoacids does not occur. Therefore, the gene for alanine aminotransferase enzyme in Trypanosoma brucei (TbAAT) was characterized and its function assessed using a combination of RNA interference and gene knockout approaches. Surprisingly, as much as 95% or more of the activity appears to be unnecessary for growth of either bloodstream or procyclic forms respiring on glucose. A combination of RNA interference and NMR spectroscopy revealed an important role for the activity in procyclic forms respiring on proline. Under these conditions, the major end product of proline metabolism is alanine, and a reduction in TbAAT activity led to a proportionate decrease in the amount of alanine excreted along with an increase in the doubling time of the cells. These results provide evidence of a role for alanine aminotransferase in the metabolism of proline in African trypanosomes by linking glutamate produced by the initial oxidative steps of the pathway with pyruvate produced by the final oxidative step of the pathway. This step appears to be essential when proline is the primary carbon source, which is likely to be the physiological situation in the tsetse fly vector.

Molecular, functional and structural properties of the prolyl oligopeptidase of Trypanosoma cruzi (POP Tc80), which is required for parasite entry into mammalian cells

We have demonstrated that the 80 kDa POP Tc80 (prolyl oligopeptidase of Trypanosoma cruzi) is involved in the process of cell invasion, since specific inhibitors block parasite entry into non-phagocytic mammalian host cells. In contrast with other POPs, POP Tc80 is capable of hydrolysing large substrates, such as fibronectin and native collagen. In this study, we present the cloning of the POPTc80 gene, whose deduced amino acid sequence shares considerable identity with other members of the POP family, mainly within its C-terminal portion that forms the catalytic domain. Southern-blot analysis indicated that POPTc80 is present as a single copy in the genome of the parasite. These results are consistent with mapping of POPTc80 to a single chromosome. The active recombinant protein (rPOP Tc80) displayed kinetic properties comparable with those of the native enzyme. Novel inhibitors were assayed with rPOP Tc80, and the most efficient ones presented values of inhibition coefficient Ki < or = 1.52 nM. Infective parasites treated with these specific POP Tc80 inhibitors attached to the surface of mammalian host cells, but were incapable of infecting them. Structural modelling of POP Tc80, based on the crystallized porcine POP, suggested that POP Tc80 is composed of an alpha/beta-hydrolase domain containing the catalytic triad Ser548-Asp631-His667 and a seven-bladed beta-propeller non-catalytic domain. Docking analysis suggests that triple-helical collagen access to the catalytic site of POP Tc80 occurs in the vicinity of the interface between the two domains.

Generating EST libraries: trans-spliced cDNAs

Eukaryotes using trans-splicing for transcript processing incorporate a taxon-specific sequence tag (the spliced leader, SL) to a proportion (either all or a fraction) of their mRNAs. This feature may be exploited for the preparation of full-length-enriched cDNA libraries from these organisms (a diverse group including euglenozoa and dinoflagellates, as well as members from five metazoan phyla: Cnidaria, Rotifera, Nematoda, Platyhelminths and Chordata). The strategy has indeed been widely used to construct cDNA libraries for the generation of ESTs, mainly from parasitic euglenozoa and helminths.We describe a set of optimised protocols to prepare directional SL-cDNA libraries; the method involves PCR-amplification of SL-cDNA and its subsequent cloning in a plasmid vector under a specific orientation. It uses small amounts of total RNA as starting material and may be applied to a variety of samples. The approach permits the selective cloning of mRNAs tagged with a particular SL from mixtures including large amounts of non-trans-spliced mRNAs. Thus, it allows exclusion of host contamination when isolating SL-cDNAs from parasitic organisms, and has other potential applications, such as the characterisation of the trans-spliced transcriptome from organisms in mixed pools of species.

Using 5'-PTMs to repair mutant beta-globin transcripts

Trans-splicing has been used to repair mutant RNA transcripts via competition for the spliceosome using pre-trans-splicing molecules, or "PTMs." Previous studies have demonstrated that functional PTMs can be designed for either 3'- or 5'-exon replacement, with a vast majority of the work to date focusing on repair of mutations within internal exons and via 3'-exon replacement. Here, we describe the first use of trans-splicing to target the first exon and intron of a therapeutically relevant gene and repair the mutant RNA by 5'-exon replacement. Our results show that 5'-PTMs can be designed to repair mutations in the beta-globin transcript involved in sickle cell anemia and beta-thalassemia while providing insight into considerations for competition between trans- versus cis-splicing in mammalian cells. Target transcripts with impaired cis-splicing capabilities, like those produced in some forms of beta-thalassemia, are more efficiently repaired via trans-splicing than targets in which cis-splicing is unaffected as with sickle beta-globin. This study reveals desirable characteristics in substrate RNAs for trans-splicing therapeutics as well as provides an opportunity for further exploration into general splicing mechanisms via 5'-PTMs.

Messenger RNA processing sites in Trypanosoma brucei

In Kinetoplastids, protein-coding genes are transcribed polycistronically by RNA polymerase II. Individual mature mRNAs are generated from polycistronic precursors by 5' trans splicing of a 39-nt capped leader RNA and 3' polyadenylation. It was previously known that trans splicing generally occurs at an AG dinucleotide downstream of a polypyrimidine tract, and that polyadenylation is coupled to downstream trans splicing. The few polyadenylation sites that had been examined were 100-400 nt upstream of the polypyrimidine tract which marked the adjacent trans splice site. We wished to define the sequence requirements for trypanosome mRNA processing more tightly and to generate a predictive algorithm. By scanning all available Trypanosoma brucei cDNAs for splicing and polyadenylation sites, we found that trans splicing generally occurs at the first AG following a polypyrimidine tract of 8-25 nt, giving rise to 5'-UTRs of a median length of 68 nt. We also found that in general, polyadenylation occurs at a position with one or more A residues located between 80 and 140 nt from the downstream polypyrimidine tract. These data were used to calibrate free parameters in a grammar model with distance constraints, enabling prediction of polyadenylation and trans splice sites for most protein-coding genes in the trypanosome genome. The data from the genome analysis and the program are available from: .

Analysis of spliceosomal complexes in Trypanosoma brucei and silencing of two splicing factors Prp31 and Prp43

In trypanosomatids all mRNAs undergo trans-splicing, whereas cis-splicing is restricted to a few transcripts. Trans-splicing is mechanistically similar to cis-splicing, however, little is known about the trans-splicing machinery and its underlying mechanism. In this study, we examined the involvement of splicing factors in cis- and trans-splicing by RNA interference (RNAi). Two factors (Prp31 and Prp43) were found to be essential for both pathways, suggesting that splicing factors are shared by these two reactions. We identified a 45S complex carrying pre-mRNA and all the U-snRNAs, including U1 and the SL RNA, suggesting that a single spliceosomal complex may potentially conduct both trans- and cis-splicing.

Pre-mRNA trans-splicing: from kinetoplastids to mammals, an easy language for life diversity

Since the discovery that genes are split into intron and exons, the studies of the mechanisms involved in splicing pointed to presence of consensus signals in an attempt to generalize the process for all living cells. However, as discussed in the present review, splicing is a theme full of variations. The trans-splicing of pre-mRNAs, the joining of exons from distinct transcripts, is one of these variations with broad distribution in the phylogenetic tree. The biological meaning of this phenomenon is discussed encompassing reactions resembling a possible noise to mechanisms of gene expression regulation. All of them however, can contribute to the generation of life diversity.

Spliced-leader trans-splicing in freshwater planarians

trans-Splicing, in which a spliced-leader (SL) RNA is appended to the most 5' exon of independently transcribed pre-mRNAs, has been described in a wide range of eukaryotes, from protozoans to chordates. Here we describe trans-splicing in the freshwater planarian Schmidtea mediterranea, a free-living member of the phylum Platyhelminthes. Analysis of an expressed sequence tag (EST) collection from this organism showed that over 300 transcripts shared one of two approximately 35-base sequences (Smed SL-1 and SL-2) at their 5' ends. Examination of genomic sequences encoding representatives of these transcripts revealed that these shared sequences were transcribed elsewhere in the genome. RNA blot analysis, 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends, as well as genomic sequence data showed that 42-nt SL sequences were derived from small RNAs of approximately 110 nt. Similar sequences were also found at the 5' ends of ESTs from the planarian Dugesia japonica. trans-Splicing has already been described in numerous representatives of the phylum Platyhelminthes (trematodes, cestodes, and polyclads); its presence in two representatives of the triclads supports the hypothesis that this mode of RNA processing is ancestral within this group. The upcoming complete genome sequence of S. mediterranea, combined with this animal's experimental accessibility and susceptibility to RNAi, provide another model organism in which to study the function of the still-enigmatic trans-splicing.

Genomic organization of the mouse Msh4 gene producing bicistronic, chimeric and antisense mRNA

By degenerate PCR and screening of mouse testis cDNA library, we have identified seven cDNAs from the meiotic recombination gene Msh4. Variant alpha and probably beta are likely involved in meiotic DNA recombination. Other variants have distinctive structures; variant epsilon, theta; and iota form a bicistronic operon, while variant delta contains antisense RNA for the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperon Hspa5 gene and small open reading frame (ORF) identical to epsilon ORF2. Analysis of the exon-intron structures revealed unusual genomic organizations: the first three exons of delta and the first exon of epsilon are respectively mapped to the Hspa5 locus on chromosome 2 and the Pcbp3 locus on chromosome 10; the remaining exons of both variants are mapped to the Msh4 locus on chromosome 3. The first exon of variant beta is located on chromosome 16, while the others are located on chromosome 3. Synthesis of these mRNAs is assumed to require interchromosomal trans-splicing alone (beta and epsilon) or in combination with converse-splicing (delta). Most Msh4 variant mRNAs are mainly expressed in testis, but a small amount of each variant except for epsilon is also expressed in brain, heart, thymus, ovary and embryonic head. Enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fusion experiments showed that all the ORFs are translated, and most of those proteins are localized to a particular subcellular compartment. It also appeared that expression of variant delta induces cell death. This study suggests that the dynamic interchromosomal (intergenic) trans-splicing generates functional diversity of the mouse Msh4 gene.

Insights into a CRM1-mediated RNA-nuclear export pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi

Nuclear export and import of proteins and RNAs is a regulated process that permits the control of protein expression during cell development and differentiation. In all eukaryotic organisms transport of proteins to specific cellular compartments requires specific signaling sequences. Proteins that shuttle between nucleus and cytoplasm bear nuclear localization signals (NLS) and/or nuclear export signals (NES) and some of them can carry mRNAs, as part of shuttling ribonucleoprotein complexes. In this work we describe in the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, a CRM1/exportin1 nuclear export factor named TcCRM1. This protein contains the conserved central region (CCR) that interacts with NES sequences present within cargo molecules, and the Cys residue involved in covalent binding to the Streptomyces metabolite leptomycin B (LMB). By subcellular fractionation we show that TcCRM1, a protein of about 117 kDa, has nuclear localization. We also demonstrate that LMB inhibits the replication of T. cruzi in a dose-dependent manner. In situ hybridization experiments performed with a Texas red-coupled oligo(dT) probe revealed that LMB produced a partial short-term accumulation of a poly(A)+RNA subset in the nucleus. Some mRNAs such as HSP70, TcUBP2/1 and TcPABP1 are reduced or disappeared from the cytoplasm of LMB treated cells. In sharp contrast with metazoans, no effect was observed on two U snRNAs subcellular localization, implying that a different export route might exist for these RNAs in trypanosomes.

A sequence motif within trypanosome precursor tRNAs influences abundance and mitochondrial localization

Trypanosoma brucei lacks mitochondrial genes encoding tRNAs and must import nuclearly encoded tRNAs from the cytosol. The mechanism and specificity of this process remain unclear. We have identified a unique sequence motif, YGG(C/A)RRC, upstream of the genes encoding mitochondrially localized tRNAs in T. brucei. Both in vitro import studies and in vivo transfection studies indicate that deletion of the YGG(C/A)RRC sequence alters mitochondrial localization of tRNA(Leu), and in vivo studies also show a decrease in the cellular abundance of tRNA(Leu). These studies provide direct evidence for cis-acting RNA motifs within precursor tRNAs that facilitate the selection of tRNAs for mitochondrial import in trypanosomes. Furthermore, we found that mutations to the YGG(C/A)RRC sequence also altered the intracellular distribution of other endogenous tRNAs, suggesting a general role for this sequence in tRNA trafficking in trypanosomes.

Diplonema spp. possess spliced leader RNA genes similar to the Kinetoplastida

The phylogenetic placement of the genus Diplonema in relation to fellow phylum members Euglena and Trypanosoma has been uncertain. The spliced leader RNA gene, present in the euglenids and kinetoplastids in distinct forms, was a potential target for resolving this question. The first indication supporting a closer relationship to the kinetoplastids was the recognition of potential spliced leader RNA exon sequences in the genomic DNA of two Diplonema isolates. Examination of total cell RNA revealed transcripts in the anticipated size range at approximately 120 and 130 nt. Specific PCR amplification of a spliced leader RNA gene repeat was performed. The hallmark features of the kinetoplastid-type spliced leader RNA, specifically the 39-nt exon, splice-donor site, Sm-binding site and poly-T tract and the potential to form the requisite stem-loop structures, were found. Diplonema spp. are different from the kinetoplastids by virtue of C residues at positions 4 and 18 in the exon. While the intergenic spacer regions varied in size, each contained the complete sequence or remnants of a 5S ribosomal RNA gene. Possession of a functional spliced leader RNA gene of the kinetoplastid variety in Diplonema supports a closer evolutionary relationship with this group than with the euglenids.

mRNA 5'-leader trans-splicing in the chordates

We report the discovery of mRNA 5'-leader trans-splicing (SL trans-splicing) in the chordates. In the ascidian protochordate Ciona intestinalis, the mRNAs of at least seven genes undergo trans-splicing of a 16-nucleotide 5'-leader apparently derived from a 46-nucleotide RNA that shares features with previously characterized splice donor SL RNAs. SL trans-splicing was known previously to occur in several protist and metazoan phyla, however, this is the first report of SL trans-splicing within the deuterostome division of the metazoa. SL trans-splicing is not known to occur in the vertebrates. However, because ascidians are primitive chordates related to vertebrate ancestors, our findings raise the possibility of ancestral SL trans-splicing in the vertebrate lineage.

Tandemly repeated DNA is a target for the partial replacement of thymine by beta-D-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil in Trypanosoma brucei

In the DNA of African trypanosomes a small fraction of thymine is replaced by the modified base beta-D-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil (J). The function of this large base is unknown. The presence of J in the silent variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites and the lack of J in the transcribed expression site indicates that DNA modification might play a role in control of gene repression. However, the abundance of J in the long telomeric repeat tracts and in subtelomeric arrays of simple repeats suggests that J may also have specific functions in repetitive DNA. We have now analyzed chromosome-internal repetitive sequences in the genome of Trypanosoma brucei and found J in the minichromosomal 177-bp repeats, in the long arrays of 5S RNA gene repeats, and in the spliced-leader RNA gene repeats. No J was found in the rDNA locus or in dispersed repetitive transposon-like elements. Remarkably, the rDNA of T. brucei is not organized in long arrays of tandem repeats, as in many other eukaryotes. T. brucei contains only approximately 15-20 rDNA repeat units that are divided over six to seven chromosomes. Our results show that J is present in many tandemly repeated sequences, either at a telomere or chromosome internal. The presence of J might help to stabilize the long arrays of repeats in the genome.

Transcription of the kinetoplastid spliced leader RNA gene

In recent years, much has been learned about the cis-elements controlling transcription of the kinetoplastid spliced leader (SL) RNA gene. The SL RNA gene contains the first 39 nucleotides that are trans-spliced on to all nuclear-derived mRNAs in these organisms. Transcription initiation is determined by two precisely spaced upstream elements and transcription termination is directed by the downstream poly-T tract, although the RNA polymerase responsible for SL RNA synthesis is still questioned. In this article, David Campbell, Nancy Sturm and Michael Yu review the field of kinetoplastid SL RNA gene transcription, address past proposals in light of current data and discuss some of the differences that appear in the literature.

The trans-spliceosomal U4 RNA from the monogenetic trypanosomatid Leptomonas collosoma. Cloning and identification of a transcribed trna-like element that controls its expression

U4 small nuclear RNA is essential for trans-splicing. Here we report the cloning of U4 snRNA gene from Leptomonas collosoma and analysis of elements controlling its expression. The trypanosome U4 RNA is the smallest known, it carries an Sm-like site, and has the potential for extensive intermolecular base pairing with the U6 RNA. Sequence analysis of the U4 locus indicates the presence of a tRNA-like element 86 base pairs upstream of the gene that is divergently transcribed to yield a stable small tRNA-like RNA. Two additional tRNA genes, tRNA(Pro) and tRNA(Gly), were found upstream of this element. By stable expression of a tagged U4 RNA, we demonstrate that the tRNA-like gene, but not the upstream tRNA genes, is essential for U4 expression and that the B box but not the A Box of the tRNA-like gene is crucial for expression in vivo. Mapping the 2'-O-methyl groups on U4 and U6 small nuclear RNAs suggests the presence of modifications in canonical positions. However, the number of modified nucleotides is fewer than in mammalian homologues. The U4 genomic organization including both tRNA-like and tRNA genes may represent a relic whereby trypanosomatids "hired" tRNA genes to provide extragenic promoter elements. The close proximity of tRNA genes to the tRNA-like molecule in the U4 locus further suggests that the tRNA-like gene may have evolved from a tRNA member of this cluster.

Cloning and functional expression of a gene encoding a P1 type nucleoside transporter from Trypanosoma brucei

Nucleoside transporters are likely to play a central role in the biochemistry of the parasite Trypanosoma brucei, since these protozoa are unable to synthesize purines de novo and must salvage them from their hosts. Furthermore, nucleoside transporters have been implicated in the uptake of antiparasitic and experimental drugs in these and other parasites. We have cloned the gene for a T. brucei nucleoside transporter, TbNT2, and shown that this permease is related in sequence to mammalian equilibrative nucleoside transporters. Expression of the TbNT2 gene in Xenopus oocytes reveals that the permease transports adenosine, inosine, and guanosine and hence has the substrate specificity of the P1 type nucleoside transporters that have been previously characterized by uptake assays in intact parasites. TbNT2 mRNA is expressed in bloodstream form (mammalian host stage) parasites but not in procyclic form (insect stage) parasites, indicating that the gene is developmentally regulated during the parasite life cycle. Genomic Southern blots suggest that there are multiple genes related in sequence to TbNT2, implying the existence of a family of nucleoside transporter genes in these parasites.

Developmental regulation of spliced leader RNA gene in Leishmania donovani amastigotes is mediated by specific polyadenylation

Leishmania cycles between the insect vector and its mammalian host undergoing several important changes mediated by the stage-specific expression of a number of genes. Using a genomic differential screening approach, we isolated differentially expressed cosmid clones carrying several copies of the mini-exon gene. We report that the spliced leader (SL) RNA, essential for the maturation of all pre-mRNAs by trans-splicing, is developmentally regulated in Leishmania donovani amastigotes and that this regulation is rapidly induced upon parasite growth under acidic conditions. Stage-specific regulation of the SL RNA is associated with the expression of a larger approximately 170-nucleotide transcript that bears an additional 15-nucleotide sequence at its 3'-end and is polyadenylated in contrast to the mature SL RNA. The poly(A)+ SL RNA represents 12-16% of the total SL transcript synthesized in amastigotes and is 2.5-3-fold more stable than the poly(A)- transcript. The poly(A)+ SL transcript is synthesized specifically from one class of the genomic mini-exon copies. Polyadenylation of the SL RNA may control the levels of the SL mature transcript under amastigote growth and may represent an additional step in the gene regulation process during parasite differentiation.

Testing promoter activity in the trypanosome genome: isolation of a metacyclic-type VSG promoter, and unexpected insights into RNA polymerase II transcription

In trypanosomes, most genes are arranged in polycistronic transcription units. Individual mRNAs are generated by 5'-trans splicing and 3' polyadenylation. Remarkably, no regulation of RNA polymerase II transcription has been detected although many RNAs are differentially expressed during kinetoplastid life cycles. Demonstration of specific class II promoters is complicated by the difficulty in distinguishing between genuine promoter activity and stimulation of trans splicing. Using vectors that were designed to allow the detection of low promoter activities in a transcriptionally silent chromosomal context, we isolated a novel trypanosome RNA polymerase I promoter. We were however unable to detect class II promoter activity in any tested DNA fragment. We also integrated genes which were preceded by a T3 promoter into the genome of cells expressing bacteriophage T3 polymerase: surprisingly, transcription was alpha-amanitin sensitive. One possible interpretation of these results is that in trypanosomes, RNA polymerase II initiation is favored by genomic accessibility and double-strand melting.

Three small nucleolar RNAs identified from the spliced leader-associated RNA locus in kinetoplastid protozoans

First characterized in Trypanosoma brucei, the spliced leader-associated (SLA) RNA gene locus has now been isolated from the kinetoplastids Leishmania tarentolae and Trypanosoma cruzi. In addition to the T. brucei SLA RNA, both L. tarentolae and T. cruzi SLA RNA repeat units also yield RNAs of 75 or 76 nucleotides (nt), 92 or 94 nt, and approximately 450 or approximately 350 nt, respectively, each with significant sequence identity to transcripts previously described from the T. brucei SLA RNA locus. Cell fractionation studies localize the three additional RNAs to the nucleolus; the presence of box C/D-like elements in two of the transcripts suggests that they are members of a class of small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) that guide modification and cleavage of rRNAs. Candidate rRNA-snoRNA interactions can be found for one domain in each of the C/D element-containing RNAs. The putative target site for the 75/76-nt RNA is a highly conserved portion of the small subunit rRNA that contains 2'-O-ribose methylation at a conserved position (Gm1830) in L. tarentolae and in vertebrates. The 92/94-nt RNA has the potential to form base pairs near a conserved methylation site in the large subunit rRNA, which corresponds to position Gm4141 of small rRNA 2 in T. brucei. These data suggest that trypanosomatids do not obey the general 5-bp rule for snoRNA-mediated methylation.

Single nucleotide resolution of promoter activity and protein binding for the Leishmania tarentolae spliced leader RNA gene

In Kinetoplastid protozoa, trans-splicing is a central step in the maturation of nuclear mRNAs. In Leishmania, a common 39 nt spliced-leader (SL) is transferred via trans-splicing from the precursor 96 nt SL RNA to the 5' terminus of all known protein-encoding RNAs. In this study, promoter elements of the L. tarentolae SL RNA gene have been identified with respect to transcriptional activity and putative transcription factor binding. We have mapped the essential regions in the SL RNA gene promoter at single nucleotide resolution using both in vivo transcription and in vitro protein/DNA binding approaches. Two regions located upstream of the SL RNA gene were identified: a GN3CCC element at -39 to -33 and a GACN5G element at -66 to -58 were essential for SL RNA gene transcription in stably transfected cells. Consistent with other known bipartite promoter elements, the spacing between the GN3CCC and GACN5G elements was found to be critical for proper promoter function and correct transcription start point selection, as was the distance between the two elements and the wild-type transcription start point. The GACN5G element interacts specifically and in a double-stranded form with a protein(s) in Leishmania nuclear extracts. The degree of this protein DNA interaction in vitro correlated with SL RNA gene transcription efficiency in vivo, consistent with a role of the protein as a transcription factor. The core nucleotides GACN5G fit the consensus PSE promoter structure of pol II-transcribed snRNA genes in metazoa.

Exon scrambling of MLL transcripts occur commonly and mimic partial genomic duplication of the gene

The MLL gene is frequently rearranged in acute human leukemia of both the myeloid and lymphoid lineages. Using a sensitive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay, we identified several abnormally spliced transcripts in which MLL exons were joined in an order different from the genomic orientation (scrambled exons). Mis-splicing of MLL was present in both normal and malignant tissues. Although the majority of these scrambled transcripts were joined accurately at consensus splice sites, there were several examples in which the junctions of exons spliced in aberrant order were at non-consensus sites. A number of features differentiate mis-splicing of MLL from the previously described cases of scrambled exons and circular RNAs. Some scrambled transcripts appear to be present in the polyadenylated fraction of RNA. No correlation of exon scrambling with exon skipping was found, and there was no particular tendency for the exons involved to be near large introns. Our data show that splicing of MLL is extremely complex. The presence of scrambled transcripts in both normal and leukemic cells, indistinguishable from transcripts resulting from genomic MLL rearrangements, precludes the use of nested RT-PCR as a screening method for detection of tandem duplication of tandem duplication of MLL.

Molecular cloning and characterization of two iron superoxide dismutase cDNAs from Trypanosoma cruzi

Two cDNAs (FeSODA and FeSODB cDNAs) corresponding to superoxide dismutase (1.15.1.1., SOD) were isolated from a Trypanosoma cruzi cDNA library. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequences with previously reported SOD protein sequences revealed that the T. cruzi open reading frames had considerable homology with FeSODs. The coding region of the T. cruzi FeSODB cDNA has been expressed in fusion with glutathione-S-transferase using an Escherichia coli mutant QC779, lacking both MnSOD and FeSOD genes (sodA sodB). Staining of native polyacrylamide gels for SOD activity of T cruzi crude lysate and the recombinant SOD suggests that this protein is an FeSOD. The recombinant enzyme also protected the E. coli mutant QC779 from paraquat toxicity. Northern blot analysis showed that FeSODB is differentially expressed, showing a higher level at the epimastigote stage of T. cruzi development; whereas, FeSODA is constitutively expressed at a lower level in all developmental stages. Furthermore, Southern hybridization shows that both FeSODA and FeSODB genes appear to be present in the T. cruzi genome as multiple repeating units (multi-copy gene family).

The U6 snRNA-encoding gene of the monogenetic trypanosomatid Leptomonas collosoma

The U6 snRNA (U6) is the most conserved small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and apparently plays a central role in catalysis of the cis-splicing reaction. In trans-splicing, U6 may have an additional function. In the nematode trans-splicing system, a direct interaction between the U6 and spliced leader (SL) RNAs has been demonstrated, suggesting that U6 may serve as a bridge between the SL RNA and the acceptor pre-mRNA. To examine possible phylogenetic conservation of trypanosomatid U6 sequences that may interact with spliceosomal RNAs, we have cloned and sequenced the U6 gene from the monogenetic trypanosomatid Leptomonas collosoma (Lc). The Lc U6 deviates from the Trypanosoma brucei (Tb) RNA only in four positions located in the 5' stem-loop and the central domains. As in Tb, U6 is a single-copy gene and two tRNA genes, tRNAGln and tRNAIle, are found upstream to the gene. The tRNAs are differentially expressed; tRNAGln is transcribed in the opposite direction to U6, whereas tRNAIle is not transcribed. Possible base-pairing between U6 and the U2 and SL RNAs, similar to the interactions that take place in the nematode trans-splicing system, are proposed.

Characterization of two nuclear-encoded protein components of mitochondrial ribonucleoprotein complexes from Leishmania tarentolae

Two mitochondrial proteins with molecular masses of 18 and 51 kDa were isolated from Leishmania tarentolae, and N-terminal amino-acid sequences were obtained. The cDNAs and genes encoding these proteins were cloned using RT-PCR. The proteins were identified as components of the previously characterized mitochondrial ribonucleoprotein complexes, T-Ia and T-VI, by comigration in native gels. The p18 and p51 genes contain 17 and 9-amino-acid N-terminal sequences, which are not present in the mature proteins and may represent cleavable mitochondrial targeting sequences. There are two identical p18 genes separated by 1.7 kb in tandem array and both are transcribed. The p18 amino-acid sequence is not similar to any sequence in the database. Antiserum to p18 expressed in Escherichia coli reacts with the entire tubular mitochondrion. The p51 gene is single copy, and the amino-acid sequence is similar to mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenases from other organisms. The N-terminal amino-acid sequences of 71 and 62-kDa mitochondrial proteins which co-migrated in native gels with several other T-complexes were also obtained. The p71 sequence proved to be similar to hsp70 sequences from other organisms. The p62 sequence was identical to an hsp60 sequence from Trypanosoma brucei.

The serum resistance-associated (SRA) gene of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense encodes a variant surface glycoprotein-like protein

In the Trypanosoma brucei species, T. b. rhodesiense and T. b. gambiense represent the human infective host range variants, while T. b. brucei is lysed upon exposure to a cytotoxic factor in normal human serum. T. b. rhodesiense can occur in a serum-resistant and a serum-sensitive form. The resistance towards normal human serum was shown to be a labile character and to be determined by the environment in which the parasites live. We have clearly demonstrated the presence of RNA transcripts unique to the resistant forms of T. b. rhodesiense. These transcripts encode a protein with VSG characteristics. The DNA fragment isolated previously, which hybridises with the resistance-specific mRNA sequence, appears to be a pseudogene belonging to the same gene family.

trans-spliceosomal U6 RNAs of Crithidia fasciculata and Leptomonas seymouri: deviation from the conserved ACAGAG sequence and potential base pairing with spliced leader RNA

U6 RNA genes from the trypanosomatids Crithidia fasciculata and Leptomonas seymouri have been isolated and sequenced. As in Trypanosoma brucei, the U6 RNA genes in both C. fasciculata and L. seymouri are arranged in close linkage with upstream tRNA genes. The U6 RNA sequences from C. fasciculata and L. seymouri deviate in five and three positions, respectively, from the published T. brucei sequence. Interestingly, both C. fasciculata U6 RNA genes carry a C-->T change at the second position of the ACAGAG hexanucleotide sequence, which is important for splicing function and has been considered phylogenetically invariable. A compensatory base change of the C. fasciculata spliced leader RNA at the highly conserved 5' splice site position +5, G-->A, suggests that an interaction between the 5' splice site region and U6 RNA recently proposed for the yeast cis-splicing system may also occur in trans splicing.

trans-spliceosomal U6 RNAs of Crithidia fasciculata and Leptomonas seymouri: deviation from the conserved ACAGAG sequence and potential base pairing with spliced leader RNA

U6 RNA genes from the trypanosomatids Crithidia fasciculata and Leptomonas seymouri have been isolated and sequenced. As in Trypanosoma brucei, the U6 RNA genes in both C. fasciculata and L. seymouri are arranged in close linkage with upstream tRNA genes. The U6 RNA sequences from C. fasciculata and L. seymouri deviate in five and three positions, respectively, from the published T. brucei sequence. Interestingly, both C. fasciculata U6 RNA genes carry a C-->T change at the second position of the ACAGAG hexanucleotide sequence, which is important for splicing function and has been considered phylogenetically invariable. A compensatory base change of the C. fasciculata spliced leader RNA at the highly conserved 5' splice site position +5, G-->A, suggests that an interaction between the 5' splice site region and U6 RNA recently proposed for the yeast cis-splicing system may also occur in trans splicing.

Karyotype analysis of the monogenetic trypanosomatid Leptomonas collosoma

In order to develop a genetic system for the monogenetic trypanosomatids, we have analyzed the molecular karyotype of Leptomonas collosoma based on chromosome separation by clamped homogeneous electric field (CHEF) gel electrophoresis. The chromosome location of 5 RNA coding genes (SL, U6, 5S, 7SL and rRNA) and 2 protein coding genes (for HSP83 and alpha-tubulin) was determined. All of the L. collosoma genes examined were found on at least 2 chromosomes, which differ in size in the range of 100-500 kb, suggesting that the organism is diploid. The weighted sum of L. collosoma chromosomes separated by CHEF analysis was approximately 62 +/- 3 Mb, whereas the genome size determined by FACS was estimated at approx. 80 Mb. This suggests that some of the homologous chromosomes differ in their size. The analysis presented here may facilitate studies on the function of individual genes, and on the genetic stability of this organism.

Functional analysis of cis-acting DNA elements required for expression of the SL RNA gene in the parasitic protozoan Leishmania amazonensis

DNA sequences, that control expression of the spliced leader (SL) RNA gene in the parasitic protozoan Leishmania amazonensis, were mapped by block substitution mutagenesis. In the absence of a functional in vitro system for transcription, no promoter elements have yet been identified in this organism. We therefore developed an alternative in vivo approach, in which the SL RNA gene was tagged and then subjected to a series of linker scanning mutations. Each tagged and mutated SL RNA construct was introduced into parasite cells via the pX transfection vector, and was examined for expression of the tagged SL RNA followed by characterization of its transcriptional start site. The replacement of a critical DNA element was expected to prevent expression of the tagged SL RNA. We found that the putative SL RNA promoter is complex and includes two elements: one is located upstream to the coding region, between positions -30 to -70; and the other is located between -10 to +10, and includes transcribed sequences. In addition to the functional relationship between the SL RNA and vertebrate U snRNAs, we found structural similarities in their regulatory elements, which may possibly indicate a common evolutionary ancestry for these molecules.

Antigens shared by Leishmania species and Trypanosoma cruzi: immunological comparison of the acidic ribosomal P0 proteins

Patients with visceral leishmaniasis produce high levels of immunoglobulin, but the specificities of antibodies produced are not well characterized. In an effort to identify leishmania antigens that are specific to Leishmania species or are cross-reactive with other parasitic protozoa, we have cloned and characterized full-length genomic and cDNA clones encoding a Leishmania chagasi acidic ribosomal antigen, LcP0, recognized during human infections. The protein is homologous to the Trypanosoma cruzi and human ribosomal proteins TcP0 and HuP0, respectively. Unlike most higher eukaryotes, but similar to TcP0, LcP0 has a C-terminal heptapeptide sequence resembling those of the archaebacterial acidic (P-like) proteins. The highly charged C-terminal acidic domain of LcP0 contains a serine residue typically found in most eukaryotes but lacking in all T. cruzi P proteins we have characterized thus far. L. chagasi-infected individuals as well as those with T. cruzi infections have antibodies cross-reactive with recombinant LcP0 and TcP0 as well as HuP0. However, the properties of anti-P0 antibodies in T. cruzi and L. chagasi infection sera are quite different. Through the use of synthetic peptides, we showed that while T. cruzi infection anti-TcP0 antibodies are exclusively directed against the C-terminal domain of TcP0, L. chagasi infection sera contain antibodies reactive with epitopes other than the C-terminal sequence of LcP0. Thus, anti-LcP0 antibodies in L. chagasi infection sera represent the first characterized deviation from the restricted immunodominant C-terminal epitope involved in the generation of anti-P0 antibodies following infection or autoimmune diseases.

Isolation and characterization of the gene encoding histone H2A from Trypanosoma cruzi

In the present paper we report the isolation and characterization of the sequence of two genomic DNA fragments coding for the histone H2A of Trypanosoma cruzi. An analysis of the predicted amino acid sequence shows the presence of the amino-terminal motif characteristic of the H2A histones proteins and the Lys-Lys motif reported to be the site for the ubiquitin attachment. Southern blots of total parasite DNA probed with the H2A sequence suggested that the T. cruzi histone H2A gene is encoded in two independent gene clusters. The molecular karyotyping of the parasite indicated that these two clusters locate in a single chromosome of about 700 kb in length. The T. cruzi H2A mRNA is polyadenylated as are the basal histone mRNAs of higher eukaryotes and the histone mRNAs of yeast. By polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing and by S1 mapping we determined respectively the 5' and 3' end of the gene showing that the miniexon is added to the mRNA 71 nucleotides upstream of the ATG initiation codon and that the polyadenylation site locates in nucleotide position 773-775 close to invert repeats.

Molecular cloning, characterization, and expression in Escherichia coli of iron superoxide dismutase cDNA from Leishmania donovani chagasi

A cDNA corresponding to superoxide dismutase (SOD; EC 1.15.1.1.) was isolated from a Leishmania donovani chagasi (L. d. chagasi) promastigote cDNA library, using PCR with a set of primers derived from conserved amino acids of manganese SODs (MnSODs) and iron SODs (FeSODs). Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequences with previously reported SOD amino acid sequences revealed that the L. d. chagasi 585-bp open reading frame had considerable homology with FeSODs and MnSODs. The highest homology was shared with prokaryotic FeSODs. The coding region of L. d. chagasi SOD cDNA has been expressed in fusion with glutathione-S-transferase, using an Escherichia coli mutant, QC779, lacking both MnSOD and FeSOD genes (sodA and sodB). Staining of native polyacrylamide gels for SOD activity of Leishmania crude lysate and the recombinant SOD revealed that both had SOD activity that was inactivated by 5 mM hydrogen peroxide but not by 2 mM potassium cyanide, which is indicative of FeSOD. The recombinant enzyme also protected E. coli mutant QC779 from paraquat toxicity. This indicated that the glutathione-S-transferase peptide does not interfere with the in vivo and in vitro activities of the recombinant SOD. Cross-species hybridization showed that FeSOD is highly conserved in the Leishmania genus. Interestingly, the hybridization pattern of the FeSOD gene(s) coincided with other classification schemes that divide Leishmania species into complexes. The cloning of FeSOD cDNA may contribute to the understanding of the role of SODs in Leishmania pathogenesis.

Identification of a small RNA that interacts with the 5' splice site of the Trypanosoma brucei spliced leader RNA in vivo

In vivo psoralen cross-linking of the trypanosome spliced leader (SL) RNA has led to the discovery of a small RNA that we provisionally call the spliced leader-associated (SLA) RNA. The 72 nt SLA RNA is unlike any known small RNA except for a small region that resembles U5 snRNA. The SL/SLA RNA cross-links map to two regions, the predominant interactions occurring between the 5' splice site region of the SL RNA and a CUUUUA sequence in the SLA RNA. The resemblance between these cross-links and interactions of U5 snRNA with cis-spliced pre-mRNAs suggests that the SLA RNA may be the trans-splicing analog of U5 snRNA in trypanosomes.

Sequence diversity and organization of the msp gene family encoding gp63 of Leishmania chagasi

During in vitro growth Leishmania chagasi promastigotes differentially express 3 classes of RNAs encoding the major surface protease (MSP) gp63 that can be distinguished by their unique 3' untranslated regions. Here we show that the three classes (logarithmic-specific, stationary-specific and constitutively expressed) are encoded by a family of at least 4 tandem stationary genes (mspS2, mspS1, mspS3 and mspS5) followed by twelve or more logarithmic genes (mspL genes), one constitutive gene (mspC) and a final stationary gene (mspS4). Some of the stationary genes can be distinguished from each other by groups of nucleotide differences within the coding regions that result in localized amino acid differences. Northern blots confirm that RNAs from the individual stationary genes are present in stationary, but not logarithmic, phase promastigotes. Western blots using sera directed against synthetic peptides indicate that correspondingly heterogeneous gp63 proteins are expressed in L. chagasi promastigotes. A 200-bp region upstream of all three gp63 gene classes is conserved except for a variable number of 6-bp repeats. Downstream of the gp63 coding regions are highly conserved, class-specific sequences that include the 3' untranslated regions and extend past the polyadenylation site for 65 bp (mspL), 345 bp (mspC) or 2.8 kb (mspS). These sequence features flanking the msp coding regions are likely important in the growth phase-specific expression of the three gp63 RNA classes.

Stage-specific differential polyadenylation of mini-exon derived RNA in African trypanosomes

The differentiation of African trypanosomes through several distinct stages in their mammalian host and insect vector correlates with differential expression of some of the parasites' genes. In the search for genes from Trypanosoma brucei brucei involved in switching from the actively dividing long slender to the non-dividing short stumpy bloodstream forms, we have isolated cDNA clones which hybridise specifically to mRNA from short stumpy forms. All clones that were characterised contained similar sequences. Northern blot analysis showed that: (i) RNA transcripts which hybridise to these clones are barely detectable in the poly(A)+ fraction of RNA from long slender bloodstream forms and absent in procyclic culture forms, but are abundant in the poly(A)+ fraction of RNA from short stumpy forms; (ii) the RNA transcripts are abundant in the poly(A)- fraction of RNA from all life cycle stages of the trypanosomes, without significant differences and, (iii) three transcripts of 160, 280 and 400 nucleotides in size are detected in the poly(A)+ fraction of RNA, whereas only a single size-class of transcript of between 140 and 160 nucleotides is detectable in the poly(A)- fraction. Sequence analysis revealed that these clones correspond to mini-exon derived RNA containing a poly(A) tail at their 3' end. The polyadenylation of the transcript is a post-transcriptional event since sequences from genomic DNA could not be amplified in the polymerase chain reaction when mini-exon and oligo(dT) nucleotide sequences were used as primers. The differences in size of the transcripts detected can be accounted for by variations in the poly(A) tail length.