Extremely conserved histone H4 N terminus is dispensable for growth but essential for repressing the silent mating loci in yeast

Histone variants: The bricks that fit differently

Histone proteins organize nuclear DNA in eukaryotic cells and play crucial roles in regulating chromatin structure and function. Histone variants are produced by distinct histone genes and are produced independently of their canonical counterparts throughout the cell cycle. Even though histone variants may differ by only one or a few amino acids relative to their canonical counterparts, these minor variations can profoundly alter chromatin structure, accessibility, dynamics, and gene expression. Histone variants often interact with dedicated chaperones and remodelers and can have unique post-translational modifications that shape unique gene expression landscapes. Histone variants also play essential roles in DNA replication, damage repair, and histone-protamine transition during spermatogenesis. Importantly, aberrant histone variant expression and DNA mutations in histone variants are linked to various human diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we explore how core histone variants impact nucleosome structure and DNA accessibility, the significance of variant-specific post-translational modifications, how variant-specific chaperones and remodelers contribute to a regulatory network governing chromatin behavior, and discuss current knowledge about the association of histone variants with human diseases.

RNA Polymerase II Dependent Crosstalk between H4K16 Deacetylation and H3K56 Acetylation Promotes Transcription of Constitutively Expressed Genes

Nucleosome dynamics in the coding region of a transcriptionally active locus is critical for understanding how RNA polymerase II progresses through the gene body. Histone acetylation and deacetylation critically influence nucleosome accessibility during DNA metabolic processes like transcription. Effect of such histone modifications is context and residue dependent. Rather than effect of individual histone residues, the network of modifications of several histone residues in combination generates a chromatin landscape that is conducive for transcription. Here we show that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, crosstalk between deacetylation of the H4 N-terminal tail residue H4K16 and acetylation of the H3 core domain residue H3K56, promotes RNA polymerase II progression through the gene body. Results indicate that deacetylation of H4K16 precedes and in turn induces H3K56 acetylation. Effectively, recruitment of Rtt109, the HAT responsible for H3K56 acetylation is essentially dependent on H4K16 deacetylation. In Hos2 deletion strains, where H4K16 deacetylation is abolished, both H3K56 acetylation and RNA polymerase II recruitment gets significantly impaired. Notably, H4K16 deacetylation and H3K56 acetylation are found to be essentially dependent on active transcription. In summary, H4K16 deacetylation promotes H3K56 acetylation and the two modifications together work towards successful functioning of RNA polymerase II during active transcription.

Direct assessment of histone function using histone replacement

Histones serve many purposes in eukaryotic cells in the regulation of diverse genomic processes, including transcription, replication, DNA repair, and chromatin organization. As such, experimental systems to assess histone function are fundamental resources toward elucidating the regulation of activities occurring on chromatin. One set of important tools for investigating histone function are histone replacement systems, in which endogenous histone expression can be partially or completely replaced with a mutant histone. Histone replacement systems allow systematic screens of histone regulatory functions and the direct assessment of functions for histone residues. In this review, we describe existing histone replacement systems in model organisms, the benefits and limitations of these systems, and opportunities for future research with histone replacement strategies.

Structure of the NuA4 acetyltransferase complex bound to the nucleosome

Deoxyribonucleic acid in eukaryotes wraps around the histone octamer to form nucleosomes¹, the fundamental unit of chromatin. The N termini of histone H4 interact with nearby nucleosomes and play an important role in the formation of high-order chromatin structure and heterochromatin silencing^2-4. NuA4 in yeast and its homologue Tip60 complex in mammalian cells are the key enzymes that catalyse H4 acetylation, which in turn regulates chromatin packaging and function in transcription activation and DNA repair^5-10. Here we report the cryo-electron microscopy structure of NuA4 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae bound to the nucleosome. NuA4 comprises two major modules: the catalytic histone acetyltransferase (HAT) module and the transcription activator-binding (TRA) module. The nucleosome is mainly bound by the HAT module and is positioned close to a polybasic surface of the TRA module, which is important for the optimal activity of NuA4. The nucleosomal linker DNA carrying the upstream activation sequence is oriented towards the conserved, transcription activator-binding surface of the Tra1 subunit, which suggests a potential mechanism of NuA4 to act as a transcription co-activator. The HAT module recognizes the disk face of the nucleosome through the H2A-H2B acidic patch and nucleosomal DNA, projecting the catalytic pocket of Esa1 to the N-terminal tail of H4 and supporting its function in selective acetylation of H4. Together, our findings illustrate how NuA4 is assembled and provide mechanistic insights into nucleosome recognition and transcription co-activation by a HAT.

Free Energy Landscape of H2A-H2B Displacement From Nucleosome

Nucleosome reconstitution plays an important role in many cellular functions. As an initial step, H2A-H2B dimer displacement, which is accompanied by disruption of many of the interactions within the nucleosome, should occur. To understand how H2A-H2B dimer displacement occurs, an adaptively biased molecular dynamics (ABMD) simulation was carried out to generate a variety of displacements of the H2A-H2B dimer from the fully wrapped to partially unwrapped nucleosome structures. With regards to these structures, the free energy landscape of the dimer displacement was investigated using umbrella sampling simulations. We found that the main contributors to the free energy were the docking domain of H2A and the C-terminal of H4. There were various paths for the dimer displacement which were dependent on the extent of nucleosomal DNA wrapping, suggesting that modulation of the intra-nucleosomal interaction by external factors such as histone chaperons could control the path for the H2A-H2B dimer displacement. Key residues which contributed to the free energy have also been reported to be involved in the mutations and posttranslational modifications (PTMs) which are important for assembling and/or reassembling the nucleosome at the molecular level and are found in cancer cells at the phenotypic level. Our results give insight into how the H2A-H2B dimer displacement proceeds along various paths according to different interactions within the nucleosome.

Measuring the buffering capacity of gene silencing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Gene silencing, once established, is stably maintained for several generations. Despite the high fidelity of the inheritance of the silent state, individual components of silenced chromatin are in constant flux. Models suggest that silent loci can tolerate fluctuations in Sir proteins and histone acetylation levels, but the level of tolerance is unknown. To understand the quantitative relationships between H4K16 acetylation, Sir proteins, and silencing, we developed assays to quantitatively alter a H4K16 acetylation mimic allele and Sir protein levels and measure the effects of these changes on silencing. Our data suggest that a two- to threefold change in levels of histone marks and specific Sir proteins affects the stability of the silent state of a large chromatin domain.

Gene silencing in budding yeast is mediated by Sir protein binding to unacetylated nucleosomes to form a chromatin structure that inhibits transcription. Transcriptional silencing is characterized by the high-fidelity transmission of the silent state. Despite its relative stability, the constituent parts of the silent state are in constant flux, giving rise to a model that silent loci can tolerate such fluctuations without functional consequences. However, the level of tolerance is unknown, and we developed methods to measure the threshold of histone acetylation that causes the silent chromatin state to switch to the active state as well as to measure the levels of the enzymes and structural proteins necessary for silencing. We show that loss of silencing required 50 to 75% acetyl-mimic histones, though the precise levels were influenced by silencer strength and upstream activating sequence (UAS) enhancer/promoter strength. Measurements of repressor protein levels necessary for silencing showed that reducing SIR4 gene dosage two- to threefold significantly weakened silencing, though reducing the gene copy numbers for Sir2 or Sir3 to the same extent did not significantly affect silencing suggesting that Sir4 was a limiting component in gene silencing. Calculations suggest that a mere twofold reduction in the ability of acetyltransferases to acetylate nucleosomes across a large array of nucleosomes may be sufficient to generate a transcriptionally silent domain.

PCNA Loaders and Unloaders-One Ring That Rules Them All

During each cell duplication, the entirety of the genomic DNA in every cell must be accurately and quickly copied. Given the short time available for the chore, the requirement of many proteins, and the daunting amount of DNA present, DNA replication poses a serious challenge to the cell. A high level of coordination between polymerases and other DNA and chromatin-interacting proteins is vital to complete this task. One of the most important proteins for maintaining such coordination is PCNA. PCNA is a multitasking protein that forms a homotrimeric ring that encircles the DNA. It serves as a processivity factor for DNA polymerases and acts as a landing platform for different proteins interacting with DNA and chromatin. Therefore, PCNA is a signaling hub that influences the rate and accuracy of DNA replication, regulates DNA damage repair, controls chromatin formation during the replication, and the proper segregation of the sister chromatids. With so many essential roles, PCNA recruitment and turnover on the chromatin is of utmost importance. Three different, conserved protein complexes are in charge of loading/unloading PCNA onto DNA. Replication factor C (RFC) is the canonical complex in charge of loading PCNA during the S-phase. The Ctf18 and Elg1 (ATAD5 in mammalian) proteins form complexes similar to RFC, with particular functions in the cell’s nucleus. Here we summarize our current knowledge about the roles of these important factors in yeast and mammals.

Primate-specific histone variants

Canonical histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) are present in all eukaryotes where they package genomic DNA and participate in numerous cellular processes, such as transcription regulation and DNA repair. In addition to the canonical histones, there are many histone variants, which have different amino acid sequences, possess tissue-specific expression profiles, and function distinctly from the canonical counterparts. A number of histone variants, including both core histones (H2A/H2B/H3/H4) and linker histones (H1/H5), have been identified to date. Htz1 (H2A.Z) and CENP-A (CenH3) are present from yeasts to mammals, and H3.3 is present from Tetrahymena to humans. In addition to the prevalent variants, others like H3.4 (H3t), H2A.Bbd, and TH2B, as well as several H1 variants, are found to be specific to mammals. Among them, H2BFWT, H3.5, H3.X, H3.Y, and H4G are unique to primates (or Hominidae). In this review, we focus on localization and function of primate- or hominidae-specific histone variants.

Deacetylation of H4 lysine16 affects acetylation of lysine residues in histone H3 and H4 and promotes transcription of constitutive genes

Histone modification map of H4 N-terminal tail residues in Saccharomyces cerevisiae reveals the prominence of lysine acetylation. Previous reports have indicated the importance of lysine acetylation in maintaining chromatin structure and function. H4K16, a residue with highly regulated acetylation dynamics has unique functions not overlapping with the other H4 N- terminal acetylable residues. The present work unravels the role of H4K16 acetylation in regulating expression of constitutive genes. H4K16 gets distinctly deacetylated over the coding region of constitutively expressed genes. Deacetylation of H4K16 reduces H3K9 acetylation at the cellular and gene level. Reduced H3K9 acetylation however did not negatively correlate with active gene transcription. Significantly, H4K16 deacetylation was found to be associated with hypoacetylated H4K12 throughout the locus of constitutive genes. H4K16 and K12 deacetylation is known to favour active transcription. Sas2, the HAT mutant showed similar patterns of hypoacetylated H3K9 and H4K12 at the active loci, clearly implying that the modifications were associated with deacetylation state of H4K16. Deacetylation of H4K16 was also concurrent with increased H3K56 acetylation in the promoter region and ORF of the constitutive genes. Combination of all these histone modifications significantly reduced H3 occupancy, increased promoter accessibility and enhanced RNAPII recruitment at the constitutively active loci. Consequently, we found that expression of active genes was higher in H4K16R mutant which mimic deacetylated state, but not in H4K16Q mimicking constitutive acetylation. To summarize, H4K16 deacetylation linked with H4K12 and H3K9 hypoacetylation along with H3K56 hyperacetylation generate a chromatin landscape that is conducive for transcription of constitutive genes.

A novel histone H4 variant H4G regulates rDNA transcription in breast cancer

Histone variants, present in various cell types and tissues, are known to exhibit different functions. For example, histone H3.3 and H2A.Z are both involved in gene expression regulation, whereas H2A.X is a specific variant that responds to DNA double-strand breaks. In this study, we characterized H4G, a novel hominidae-specific histone H4 variant. We found that H4G is expressed in a variety of human cell lines and exhibit tumor-stage dependent overexpression in tissues from breast cancer patients. We found that H4G localized primarily to the nucleoli of the cell nucleus. This localization was controlled by the interaction of the alpha-helix 3 of the histone fold motif with a histone chaperone, nucleophosmin 1. In addition, we found that modulating H4G expression affects rRNA expression levels, protein synthesis rates and cell-cycle progression. Our data suggest that H4G expression alters nucleolar chromatin in a way that enhances rDNA transcription in breast cancer tissues.

The transformation of the DNA template in RNA polymerase II transcription: a historical perspective

The discovery of RNA polymerases I, II, and III opened up a new era in gene expression. Here I provide a personal retrospective account of the transformation of the DNA template, as it evolved from naked DNA to chromatin, in the biochemical analysis of transcription by RNA polymerase II. These studies have revealed new insights into the mechanisms by which transcription factors function with chromatin to regulate gene expression.

Transcription-mediated replication hindrance: a major driver of genome instability

Genome replication involves dealing with obstacles that can result from DNA damage but also from chromatin alterations, topological stress, tightly bound proteins or non-B DNA structures such as R loops. Experimental evidence reveals that an engaged transcription machinery at the DNA can either enhance such obstacles or be an obstacle itself. Thus, transcription can become a potentially hazardous process promoting localized replication fork hindrance and stress, which would ultimately cause genome instability, a hallmark of cancer cells. Understanding the causes behind transcription-replication conflicts as well as how the cell resolves them to sustain genome integrity is the aim of this review.

Exploiting CRISPR-Cas9 technology to investigate individual histone modifications

Despite their importance for most DNA-templated processes, the function of individual histone modifications has remained largely unknown because in vivo mutational analyses are lacking. The reason for this is that histone genes are encoded by multigene families and that tools to simultaneously edit multiple genomic loci with high efficiency are only now becoming available. To overcome these challenges, we have taken advantage of the power of CRISPR-Cas9 for precise genome editing and of the fact that most DNA repair in the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei occurs via homologous recombination. By establishing an episome-based CRISPR-Cas9 system for T. brucei, we have edited wild type cells without inserting selectable markers, inserted a GFP tag between an ORF and its 3'UTR, deleted both alleles of a gene in a single transfection, and performed precise editing of genes that exist in multicopy arrays, replacing histone H4K4 with H4R4 in the absence of detectable off-target effects. The newly established genome editing toolbox allows for the generation of precise mutants without needing to change other regions of the genome, opening up opportunities to study the role of individual histone modifications, catalytic sites of enzymes or the regulatory potential of UTRs in their endogenous environments.

Regulated acetylation and deacetylation of H4 K16 is essential for efficient NER in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Acetylation status of H4 K16, a residue in the histone H4 N-terminal tail plays a unique role in regulating chromatin structure and function. Here we show that, during UV-induced nucleotide excision repair H4 K16 gets hyperacetylated following an initial phase of hypoacetylation. Disrupting H4 K16 acetylation-deacetylation by mutating H4 K16 to R (deacetylated state) or Q (acetylated state) leads to compromised chromatin functions. In the silenced mating locus and telomere region H4 K16 mutants show higher recruitment of Sir proteins and spreading beyond the designated boundaries. More significantly, chromatin of both the H4 K16 mutants has reduced accessibility in the silenced regions and genome wide. On UV irradiation, the mutants showed higher UV sensitivity, reduced NER rate and altered H3 N-terminal tail acetylation, compared to wild type. NER efficiency is affected by reduced or delayed recruitment of early NER proteins and chromatin remodeller Swi/Snf along with lack of nucleosome rearrangement during repair. Additionally UV-induced expression of RAD and SNF5 genes was reduced in the mutants. Hindered chromatin accessibility in the H4 K16 mutants is thus non-conducive for gene expression as well as recruitment of NER and chromatin remodeller proteins. Subsequently, inadequate nucleosomal rearrangement during early phases of repair impeded accessibility of the NER complex to DNA lesions, in the H4 K16 mutants. Effectively, NER efficiency was found to be compromised in the mutants. Interestingly, in the transcriptionally active chromatin region, both the H4 K16 mutants showed reduced NER rate during early repair time points. However, with progression of repair H4 K16R repaired faster than K16Q mutants and rate of CPD removal became differential between the two mutants during later NER phases. To summarize, our results establish the essentiality of regulated acetylation and deacetylation of H4 K16 residue in maintaining chromatin accessibility and efficiency of functions like NER and gene expression.

Chromatin Dynamics in Genome Stability: Roles in Suppressing Endogenous DNA Damage and Facilitating DNA Repair

Genomic DNA is compacted into chromatin through packaging with histone and non-histone proteins. Importantly, DNA accessibility is dynamically regulated to ensure genome stability. This is exemplified in the response to DNA damage where chromatin relaxation near genomic lesions serves to promote access of relevant enzymes to specific DNA regions for signaling and repair. Furthermore, recent data highlight genome maintenance roles of chromatin through the regulation of endogenous DNA-templated processes including transcription and replication. Here, we review research that shows the importance of chromatin structure regulation in maintaining genome integrity by multiple mechanisms including facilitating DNA repair and directly suppressing endogenous DNA damage.

Histones H3 and H4 require their relevant amino-tails for efficient nuclear import and replication-coupled chromatin assembly in vivo

Concomitant chromatin assembly and DNA duplication is essential for cell survival and genome integrity, and requires newly synthesized histones. Although the N-terminal domains of newly synthesized H3 and H4 present critical functions, their requirement for replication-coupled chromatin assembly is controversial. Using the unique capability of the spontaneous internalization of exogenous proteins in Physarum, we showed that H3 and H4 N-tails present critical functions in nuclear import during the S-phase, but are dispensable for assembly into nucleosomes. However, our data revealed that chromatin assembly in the S-phase of complexes presenting ectopic N-terminal domains occurs by a replication-independent mechanism. We found that replication-dependent chromatin assembly requires an H3/H4 complex with the relevant N-tail domains, suggesting a concomitant recognition of the two histone domains by histone chaperones.

The Nuts and Bolts of Transcriptionally Silent Chromatin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Transcriptional silencing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae occurs at several genomic sites including the silent mating-type loci, telomeres, and the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) tandem array. Epigenetic silencing at each of these domains is characterized by the absence of nearly all histone modifications, including most prominently the lack of histone H4 lysine 16 acetylation. In all cases, silencing requires Sir2, a highly-conserved NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylase. At locations other than the rDNA, silencing also requires additional Sir proteins, Sir1, Sir3, and Sir4 that together form a repressive heterochromatin-like structure termed silent chromatin. The mechanisms of silent chromatin establishment, maintenance, and inheritance have been investigated extensively over the last 25 years, and these studies have revealed numerous paradigms for transcriptional repression, chromatin organization, and epigenetic gene regulation. Studies of Sir2-dependent silencing at the rDNA have also contributed to understanding the mechanisms for maintaining the stability of repetitive DNA and regulating replicative cell aging. The goal of this comprehensive review is to distill a wide array of biochemical, molecular genetic, cell biological, and genomics studies down to the "nuts and bolts" of silent chromatin and the processes that yield transcriptional silencing.

Automated High-Content Screening of γ-H2AX Expression in HeLa Cells

Due to their inherent nature, DNA strands can be easily broken by various environmental factors including chemical agents and ionizing radiation. Unrepaired DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs) may result in genetic instability and have a strong negative impact on the integrity of the genome. It has been found that DSBs are always followed by phosphorylation of histone protein H2AX, a member of the H2A family, and immunocytochemical detection of phosphorylated H2AX (referred to as γ-H2AX) is one of the frequently used techniques for assessing DNA damage. Usually such an assessment is done manually under the microscope which is not practical for analyzing large numbers of cells and prevents researchers from rapid and unbiased testing of novel drug compounds. To solve this problem we attempted to do automated assessment of DSBs by using a High-Content Screening (HCS) platform. As a result of this effort, we developed an easy to run HCS protocol for accurate analysis of DSBs in HeLa cells treated with camptothecin as a model. By varying the time of camptothecin treatment and its concentration we were able to study the dynamics of DSBs and perform a statistical analysis.Results of our study indicate that DSBs can be investigated using a HCS platform that enable the analysis of large numbers of experimental data points in a fast and a highly accurate manner. The protocol presented in this chapter can be easily adapted for screening libraries containing substantial numbers of chemical compounds for their efficiency to induce or/and repair DNA breaks.

Express γ-H2AX Immunocytochemical Detection of DNA Damage

DNA can be damaged by many environmental factors including chemical agents and ionizing radiation which induce the formation of DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs). If DSBs are not repaired in a timely fashion this may cause the disruption of genome integrity, which can result in cancer development. Typically, DSBs are followed by phosphorylation of histone protein H2AX, a member of the H2A family. Immunocytochemical detection of phosphorylated H2AX (e.g., γ-H2AX) appears to be a useful technique for assessing DNA damage. Such an assessment is easy to do by analyzing labeling for γ-H2AX under the microscope and does not require an expensive laboratory setup. Using HeLa cells treated with camptothecin as a model, we developed an easy-to-run protocol to analyze DSBs. Our protocol can be applied to testing the potency of different chemicals to induce DSBs in different types of cells and requires around 2 h to complete.

The molecular hallmarks of epigenetic control

Over the past 20 years, breakthrough discoveries of chromatin-modifying enzymes and associated mechanisms that alter chromatin in response to physiological or pathological signals have transformed our knowledge of epigenetics from a collection of curious biological phenomena to a functionally dissected research field. Here, we provide a personal perspective on the development of epigenetics, from its historical origins to what we define as 'the modern era of epigenetic research'. We primarily highlight key molecular mechanisms of and conceptual advances in epigenetic control that have changed our understanding of normal and perturbed development.

The Caenorhabditis elegans Protein FIC-1 Is an AMPylase That Covalently Modifies Heat-Shock 70 Family Proteins, Translation Elongation Factors and Histones

Protein AMPylation by Fic domain-containing proteins (Fic proteins) is an ancient and conserved post-translational modification of mostly unexplored significance. Here we characterize the Caenorhabditis elegans Fic protein FIC-1 in vitro and in vivo. FIC-1 is an AMPylase that localizes to the nuclear surface and modifies core histones H2 and H3 as well as heat shock protein 70 family members and translation elongation factors. The three-dimensional structure of FIC-1 is similar to that of its human ortholog, HYPE, with 38% sequence identity. We identify a link between FIC-1-mediated AMPylation and susceptibility to the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, establishing a connection between AMPylation and innate immunity in C. elegans.

Eukaryotic Fic domain containing proteins (Fic proteins) AMPylate target proteins at the expense of a single ATP molecule. Previous studies have established a first link between target protein AMPylation and the unfolded protein response (UPR) in the endoplasmic reticulum. Yet, the consequences of target AMPylation remain poorly understood. Here, we take a multi-faceted approach to investigate the role of the C. elegans Fic protein FIC-1 on a biochemical, structural and functional level in vitro as well as in vivo. We solve the 3-dimensional structure of FIC-1 and identify novel FIC-1 substrates belonging to the translation elongation as well as heat-shock protein families. Investigating the consequence of diminished (fic-1(n5823)) or increased (FIC-1[E274G](nIs733)) AMPylation levels in vivo, we find a link between AMPylation and the innate immune response to the bacterial pathogen P. aeruginosa, describing a novel in vivo phenotype associated with Fic protein mediated target AMPylation.

Histone H3 N-terminal acetylation sites especially K14 are important for rDNA silencing and aging

Histone variants and histone modifications are essential components in the establishment and maintenance of the repressed status of heterochromatin. Among these histone variants and modifications, acetylation at histone H4K16 is uniquely important for the maintenance of silencing at telomere and mating type loci but not at the ribosomal DNA locus. Here we show that mutations at H3 N-terminal acetylation site K14 specifically disrupt rDNA silencing. However, the mutant ion at H3K14R doesn't affect the recruitment of Pol II repressor RENT (regulator of nucleolar silencing and telophase exit) complex at the rDNA region. Instead, the CAF-1(chromatin assembly factor I) subunit Cac2 level decreased in the H3K14R mutant. Further experiments revealed that the single mutation at H3K14 and multi-site mutations at H3 N-terminus including K14 also delayed replication-depend nucleosome assembly and advanced replicative life span. In conclusion, our data suggest that histone H3 N-terminal acetylation sites especially at K14 are important for rDNA silencing and aging.

Translational implications of the β-cell epigenome in diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a disorder of glucose homeostasis that affects more than 24 million Americans and 382 million individuals worldwide. Dysregulated insulin secretion from the pancreatic β cells plays a central role in the pathophysiology of all forms of diabetes mellitus. Therefore, an enhanced understanding of the pathways that contribute to β-cell failure is imperative. Epigenetics refers to heritable changes in DNA transcription that occur in the absence of changes to the linear DNA nucleotide sequence. Recent evidence suggests an expanding role of the β-cell epigenome in the regulation of metabolic health. The goal of this review is to discuss maladaptive changes in β-cell DNA methylation patterns and chromatin architecture, and their contribution to diabetes pathophysiology. Efforts to modulate the β-cell epigenome as a means to prevent, diagnose, and treat diabetes are also discussed.

Heterochromatin structure: lessons from the budding yeast

The eukaryotic genome can be roughly divided into euchromatin and heterochromatin domains that are structurally and functionally distinct. Heterochromatin is characterized by its high compactness and its inhibitory effect on DNA transactions such as gene expression. Formation of heterochromatin involves special histone modifications and the recruitment and spread of silencing complexes and causes changes in the primary and higher order structures of chromatin. The past two decades have seen dramatic advances in dissecting the molecular aspects of heterochromatin because of the identification of the histone code for heterochromatin as well as its writers and erasers (histone-modifying enzymes) and readers (silencing factors recognizing histone modifications). How heterochromatic histone modifications and silencing factors contribute to the special primary and higher order structures of heterochromatin has begun to be understood. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has long been used as a model organism for heterochromatin studies. Results from these studies have contributed significantly to the elucidation of the general principles governing the formation, maintenance, and function of heterochromatin. This review is focused on investigations into the structural aspects of heterochromatin in S. cerevisiae. Current understanding of other aspects of heterochromatin including how it promotes gene silencing and its epigenetic inheritance is briefly summarized.

Histone proteolysis: a proposal for categorization into 'clipping' and 'degradation'

We propose for the first time to divide histone proteolysis into "histone degradation" and the epigenetically connoted "histone clipping". Our initial observation is that these two different classes are very hard to distinguish both experimentally and biologically, because they can both be mediated by the same enzymes. Since the first report decades ago, proteolysis has been found in a broad spectrum of eukaryotic organisms. However, the authors often not clearly distinguish or determine whether degradation or clipping was studied. Given the importance of histone modifications in epigenetic regulation we further elaborate on the different ways in which histone proteolysis could play a role in epigenetics. Finally, unanticipated histone proteolysis has probably left a mark on many studies of histones in the past. In conclusion, we emphasize the significance of reviving the study of histone proteolysis both from a biological and an experimental perspective. Also watch the Video Abstract.

Genome-wide and single-cell analyses reveal a context dependent relationship between CBP recruitment and gene expression

Genome-wide distribution of histone H3K18 and H3K27 acetyltransferases, CBP (CREBBP) and p300 (EP300), is used to map enhancers and promoters, but whether these elements functionally require CBP/p300 remains largely uncertain. Here we compared global CBP recruitment with gene expression in wild-type and CBP/p300 double-knockout (dKO) fibroblasts. ChIP-seq using CBP-null cells as a control revealed nearby CBP recruitment for 20% of constitutively-expressed genes, but surprisingly, three-quarters of these genes were unaffected or slightly activated in dKO cells. Computationally defined enhancer-promoter-units (EPUs) having a CBP peak near the enhancer-like element were more predictive, with CBP/p300 deletion attenuating expression of 40% of such constitutively-expressed genes. Examining signal-responsive (Hypoxia Inducible Factor) genes showed that 97% were within 50 kilobases of an inducible CBP peak, and 70% of these required CBP/p300 for full induction. Unexpectedly, most inducible CBP peaks occurred near signal-nonresponsive genes. Finally, single-cell expression analysis revealed additional context dependence where some signal-responsive genes were not uniformly dependent on CBP/p300 in individual cells. While CBP/p300 was needed for full induction of some genes in single-cells, for other genes CBP/p300 increased the probability of maximal expression. Thus, target gene context influences the transcriptional requirement for CBP/p300, possibly by multiple mechanisms.

Epigenetic inheritance: histone bookmarks across generations

Multiple circuitries ensure that cells respond correctly to the environmental cues within defined cellular programs. There is increasing evidence suggesting that cellular memory for these adaptive processes can be passed on through cell divisions and generations. However, the mechanisms by which this epigenetic information is transferred remain elusive, largely because it requires that such memory survive through gross chromatin remodeling events during DNA replication, mitosis, meiosis, and developmental reprogramming. Elucidating the processes by which epigenetic information survives and is transmitted is a central challenge in biology. In this review, we consider recent advances in understanding mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance with a focus on histone segregation at the replication fork, and how an epigenetic memory may get passed through the paternal lineage.

Functional proteomics in histone research and epigenetics

Post-translational modifications of histones comprise an important part of epigenetic gene regulation. Mass spectrometry and immunochemical techniques are currently the methods of choice for identification and quantitation of known and novel histone modifications. While peptide-centric mass spectrometry is a well-established tool for identification and quantification of histone modifications, recent technological advances have allowed discrete modification patterns to be assessed on intact histones. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays (ChIP and ChIP-on-chip) are currently gaining tremendous popularity and are used to explore gene-specific patterns of histone modifications on a genomic scale. In this review, we introduce the basic concepts and recent developments of mass spectrometry, as well as immunochemical techniques and their applications in the analysis of histone modifications.

Heterochromatin protein Sir3 induces contacts between the amino terminus of histone H4 and nucleosomal DNA

The regulated binding of effector proteins to the nucleosome plays a central role in the activation and silencing of eukaryotic genes. How this binding changes the properties of chromatin to mediate gene activation or silencing is not fully understood. Here we provide evidence that association of the budding yeast silent information regulator 3 (Sir3) silencing protein with the nucleosome induces a conformational change in the amino terminus of histone H4 that promotes interactions between the conserved H4 arginines 17 and 19 (R17 and R19) and nucleosomal DNA. Substitutions of H4R17 and R19 with alanine abolish silencing in vivo, but have little or no effect on binding of Sir3 to nucleosomes or histone H4 peptides in vitro. Furthermore, in both the previously reported crystal structure of the Sir3-bromo adjacent homology (BAH) domain bound to the Xenopus laevis nucleosome core particle and the crystal structure of the Sir3-BAH domain bound to the yeast nucleosome core particle described here, H4R17 and R19 make contacts with nucleosomal DNA rather than with Sir3. These results suggest that Sir3 binding generates a more stable nucleosome by clamping H4R17 and R19 to nucleosomal DNA, and raise the possibility that such induced changes in histone-DNA contacts play major roles in the regulation of chromatin structure.

Histone mimics: digging down under

Epigenetic deregulation is intimately associated with the development of human diseases. Intensive studies are currently underway to clarify the mechanism for the sake of achieving ideal diagnostic and therapeutic goals. It has been demonstrated that enzymes with histone-modifying activities can also target non-histone proteins, with the underlying mechanism remaining obscure. In this review, we focus on a novel histone mimicry strategy that may be wildly adapted during the non-histone substrate recognition process. Its potential clinical implications are also discussed.

Nucleosome surface containing nucleosomal DNA entry/exit site regulates H3-K36me3 via association with RNA polymerase II and Set2

A nucleosome is composed of intrinsically disordered histone tails and a structured nucleosome core surrounded by DNA. A variety of modifiable residues on the intrinsically disordered histone tails have been identified in the last decade. Mapping of the functional residues on the structured nucleosome core surface was recently initiated by global analysis of a comprehensive histone point mutant library (histone-GLibrary). It stands to reason that a functional relationship exists between modifiable residues on the intrinsically disordered histone tails and functional residues on the structured nucleosome core; however, this matter has been poorly explored. During transcription elongation, trimethylation of histone H3 at lysine 36 (H3-K36me3) is mediated by histone methyltransferase Set2, which binds to RNA polymerase II. Here, we used a histone-GLibrary that encompasses the nucleosomal DNA entry/exit site to show that six residues (H2A-G107, H2A-I112, H2A-L117, H3-T45, H3-R49 and H3-R52) form a surface on the structured nucleosome core and regulate H3-K36me3. Trimethylation at H3-K4 introduced by histone methyltransferase Set1 was not affected by the mutation of any of the six residues. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that most of these residues are critical for the chromatin association of RNA polymerase II and Set2, suggesting that these components regulate H3-K36me3 through functional interactions with the structured nucleosome core surface.

Chaperone-mediated acetylation of histones by Rtt109 identified by quantitative proteomics

Rtt109 is a fungal-specific histone acetyltransferase (HAT) that associates with either Vps75 or Asf1 to acetylate histone H3. Recent biochemical and structural studies suggest that site-specific acetylation of H3 by Rtt109 is dictated by the binding chaperone where Rtt109-Asf1 acetylates K56, while Rtt109-Vps75 acetylates K9 and K27. To gain further insights into the roles of Vps75 and Asf1 in directing site-specific acetylation of H3, we used quantitative proteomics to profile the global and site-specific changes in H3 and H4 during in vitro acetylation assays with Rtt109 and its chaperones. Our analyses showed that Rtt109-Vps75 preferentially acetylates H3 K9 and K23, the former residue being the major acetylation site. At high enzyme-to-substrate ratio, Rtt109 also acetylated K14, K18, K27 and to a lower extent K56 of histone H3. Importantly, this study revealed that in contrast to Rtt109-Vps75, Rtt109-Asf1 displayed a far greater site-specificity, with K56 being the primary site of acetylation. For the first time, we also report the acetylation of histone H4 K12 by Rtt109-Vps75, whereas Rtt109-Asf1 showed no detectable activity toward H4. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: From protein structures to clinical applications.

Is histone acetylation the most important physiological function for CBP and p300?

Protein lysine acetyltransferases (HATs or PATs) acetylate histones and other proteins, and are principally modeled as transcriptional coactivators. CREB binding protein (CBP, CREBBP) and its paralog p300 (EP300) constitute the KAT3 family of HATs in mammals, which has mostly unique sequence identity compared to other HAT families. Although studies in yeast show that many histone mutations cause modest or specific phenotypes, similar studies are impractical in mammals and it remains uncertain if histone acetylation is the primary physiological function for CBP/p300. Nonetheless, CBP and p300 mutations in humans and mice show that these coactivators have important roles in development, physiology, and disease, possibly because CBP and p300 act as network “hubs” with more than 400 described protein interaction partners. Analysis of CBP and p300 mutant mouse fibroblasts reveals CBP/p300 are together chiefly responsible for the global acetylation of histone H3 residues K18 and K27, and contribute to other locus-specific histone acetylation events. CBP/p300 can also be important for transcription, but the recruitment of CBP/p300 and their associated histone acetylation marks do not absolutely correlate with a requirement for gene activation. Rather, it appears that target gene context (e.g. DNA sequence) influences the extent to which CBP and p300 are necessary for transcription.

Chromatin and transcription in yeast

Understanding the mechanisms by which chromatin structure controls eukaryotic transcription has been an intense area of investigation for the past 25 years. Many of the key discoveries that created the foundation for this field came from studies of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, including the discovery of the role of chromatin in transcriptional silencing, as well as the discovery of chromatin-remodeling factors and histone modification activities. Since that time, studies in yeast have continued to contribute in leading ways. This review article summarizes the large body of yeast studies in this field.

The adjustable nucleosome: an epigenetic signaling module

This review examines the proposition that the nucleosome, in addition to its role as a DNA packaging device, is a signaling module through which changing environmental and metabolic conditions can influence genomic functions. The role of enzyme-catalyzed post-translational modifications of the core histones is critically assessed, leading to the conclusion that they play varied, often crucial and sometimes causative roles in this signaling process.

Sir3 and epigenetic inheritance of silent chromatin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Epigenetic mechanisms maintain the specific characteristics of differentiated cells by ensuring the inheritance of gene expression patterns through DNA replication and mitosis. We examined the mechanism of epigenetic inheritance of Sir protein-dependent transcriptional silencing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by examining gene expression and molecular markers of silencing at the silent mating type loci under conditions of limiting Sir3 protein. We observed that silencing at HMR, as previously reported for HML, is epigenetically inherited. This inheritance is accompanied by an increased ability of previously silenced cells to retain or recruit limiting Sir3 protein to cis-acting silencer sequences. We also observed that the low H4-K16 histone acetylation and H3-K79 methylation associated with a silenced HMR locus persist in recently derepressed cells for several generations at levels of Sir3 insufficient to maintain these marks in long-term-derepressed cells. The unique ability of previously silenced cells to retain Sir3 protein, maintain silencing-specific histone modifications, and repress HMR transcription at levels of Sir3 insufficient to mediate these effects in long-term-derepressed cells suggests that a cis-acting, chromatin-based mechanism drives epigenetic inheritance at this locus.

The conformational flexibility of the C-terminus of histone H4 promotes histone octamer and nucleosome stability and yeast viability

Background

The protein anti-silencing function 1 (Asf1) chaperones histones H3/H4 for assembly into nucleosomes every cell cycle as well as during DNA transcription and repair. Asf1 interacts directly with H4 through the C-terminal tail of H4, which itself interacts with the docking domain of H2A in the nucleosome. The structure of this region of the H4 C-terminus differs greatly in these two contexts.

Results

To investigate the functional consequence of this structural change in histone H4, we restricted the available conformations of the H4 C-terminus and analyzed its effect in vitro and in vivo in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. One such mutation, H4 G94P, had modest effects on the interaction between H4 and Asf1. However, in yeast, flexibility of the C-terminal tail of H4 has essential functions that extend beyond chromatin assembly and disassembly. The H4 G94P mutation resulted in severely sick yeast, although nucleosomes still formed in vivo albeit yielding diffuse micrococcal nuclease ladders. In vitro, H4G4P had modest effects on nucleosome stability, dramatically reduced histone octamer stability, and altered nucleosome sliding ability.

Conclusions

The functional consequences of altering the conformational flexibility in the C-terminal tail of H4 are severe. Interestingly, despite the detrimental effects of the histone H4 G94P mutant on viability, nucleosome formation was not markedly affected in vivo. However, histone octamer stability and nucleosome stability as well as nucleosome sliding ability were altered in vitro. These studies highlight an important role for correct interactions of the histone H4 C-terminal tail within the histone octamer and suggest that maintenance of a stable histone octamer in vivo is an essential feature of chromatin dynamics.

Regulation of budding yeast mating-type switching donor preference by the FHA domain of Fkh1

During Saccharomyces cerevisiae mating-type switching, an HO endonuclease-induced double-strand break (DSB) at MAT is repaired by recombining with one of two donors, HMLα or HMRa, located at opposite ends of chromosome III. MATa cells preferentially recombine with HMLα; this decision depends on the Recombination Enhancer (RE), located about 17 kb to the right of HML. In MATα cells, HML is rarely used and RE is bound by the MATα2-Mcm1 corepressor, which prevents the binding of other proteins to RE. In contrast, in MATa cells, RE is bound by multiple copies of Fkh1 and a single copy of Swi4/Swi6. We report here that, when RE is replaced with four LexA operators in MATa cells, 95% of cells use HMR for repair, but expression of a LexA-Fkh1 fusion protein strongly increases HML usage. A LexA-Fkh1 truncation, containing only Fkh1's phosphothreonine-binding FHA domain, restores HML usage to 90%. A LexA-FHA-R80A mutant lacking phosphothreonine binding fails to increase HML usage. The LexA-FHA fusion protein associates with chromatin in a 10-kb interval surrounding the HO cleavage site at MAT, but only after DSB induction. This association occurs even in a donorless strain lacking HML. We propose that the FHA domain of Fkh1 regulates donor preference by physically interacting with phosphorylated threonine residues created on proteins bound near the DSB, thus positioning HML close to the DSB at MAT. Donor preference is independent of Mec1/ATR and Tel1/ATM checkpoint protein kinases but partially depends on casein kinase II. RE stimulates the strand invasion step of interchromosomal recombination even for non-MAT sequences. We also find that when RE binds to the region near the DSB at MATa then Mec1 and Tel1 checkpoint kinases are not only able to phosphorylate histone H2A (γ-H2AX) around the DSB but can also promote γ-H2AX spreading around the RE region.

Mating-type gene switching occurs by a DSB–initiated gene conversion event using one of two donors, HML or HMR. MATa cells preferentially recombine with HML whereas MATα cells choose HMR. Donor preference is governed by the Recombination Enhancer (RE), located about 17 kb from HML. RE is repressed in MATα cells, whereas in MATa RE binds several copies of the Fkh1 protein. We replaced RE with four LexA operators and showed that the expression of LexA-Fkh1 fusion protein enhances HML usage. Donor preference depends on the phosphothreonine-binding FHA domain of Fkh1. LexA-FHA_Fkh1 physically associates with chromatin in the region surrounding the DSB at MAT. We propose that RE regulates donor preference by the binding of FHA_Fkh1 domains to phosphorylated sites around the DSB at MAT, thus bringing HML much closer than HMR. FHA_Fkh1 action partially depends on casein kinase II but not on the DNA damage checkpoint kinases Mec1 and Tel1. We also find that, when RE binds to the MAT region, phosphorylation of histone H2A (γ-H2AX) by Mec1/Tel1 not only surrounds the DSB but also spreads around RE. This is the first demonstration that γ-H2AX can spread to contiguous, but undamaged, chromatin.

Structural basis of silencing: Sir3 BAH domain in complex with a nucleosome at 3.0 Å resolution

Gene silencing is essential for regulating cell fate in eukaryotes. Altered chromatin architectures contribute to maintaining the silenced state in a variety of species. The silent information regulator (Sir) proteins regulate mating type in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. One of these proteins, Sir3, interacts directly with the nucleosome to help generate silenced domains. We determined the crystal structure of a complex of the yeast Sir3 BAH (bromo-associated homology) domain and the nucleosome core particle at 3.0 angstrom resolution. We see multiple molecular interactions between the protein surfaces of the nucleosome and the BAH domain that explain numerous genetic mutations. These interactions are accompanied by structural rearrangements in both the nucleosome and the BAH domain. The structure explains how covalent modifications on H4K16 and H3K79 regulate formation of a silencing complex that contains the nucleosome as a central component.

Replication-coupled chromatin assembly of newly synthesized histones: distinct functions for the histone tail domains

The maintenance of the genome during replication requires the assembly of nucleosomes with newly synthesized histones. Achieving the deposition of newly synthesized histones in chromatin implies their transport from the cytoplasm to the nucleus at the replication sites. Several lines of evidence have revealed critical functions of the histone tail domains in these conserved cellular processes. In this review, we discuss the role of the amino termini of the nucleosome building blocks, H2A/H2B and H3/H4, in different model systems. The experimental data showed that H2A/H2B tails and H3/H4 tails display distinct functions in nuclear import and chromatin assembly. Furthermore, we describe recent studies exploiting the unique properties of the slime mold, Physarum polycephalum , that have advanced understanding of the function of the highly conserved replication-dependent diacetylation of H4.

Mechanisms for the inheritance of chromatin states

Studies in eukaryotes ranging from yeast to mammals indicate that specific chromatin structures can be inherited following DNA replication via mechanisms acting in cis. Both the initial establishment of such chromatin structures and their inheritance require sequence-dependent specificity factors and changes in histone posttranslational modifications. Here I propose models for the maintenance of epigenetic information in which DNA silencers or nascent RNA scaffolds act as sensors that work cooperatively with parentally inherited histones to re-establish chromatin states following DNA replication.

A region of the nucleosome required for multiple types of transcriptional silencing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Extended heterochromatin domains, which are repressive to transcription and help define centromeres and telomeres, are formed through specific interactions between silencing proteins and nucleosomes. This study reveals that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the same nucleosomal surface is critical for the formation of multiple types of heterochromatin, but not for local repression mediated by a related transcriptional repressor. Thus, this region of the nucleosome may be generally important to long-range silencing. In S. cerevisiae, the Sir proteins perform long-range silencing, whereas the Sum1 complex acts locally to repress specific genes. A mutant form of Sum1p, Sum1-1p, achieves silencing in the absence of Sir proteins. A genetic screen identified mutations in histones H3 and H4 that disrupt Sum1-1 silencing and fall in regions of the nucleosome previously known to disrupt Sir silencing and rDNA silencing. In contrast, no mutations were identified that disrupt wild-type Sum1 repression. Mutations that disrupt silencing fall in two regions of the nucleosome, the tip of the H3 tail and a surface of the nucleosomal core (LRS domain) and the adjacent base of the H4 tail. The LRS/H4 tail region interacts with the Sir3p bromo-adjacent homology (BAH) domain to facilitate Sir silencing. By analogy, this study is consistent with the LRS/H4 tail region interacting with Orc1p, a paralog of Sir3p, to facilitate Sum1-1 silencing. Thus, the LRS/H4 tail region of the nucleosome may be relatively accessible and facilitate interactions between silencing proteins and nucleosomes to stabilize long-range silencing.

Control of the embryonic stem cell state

Embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells hold great promise for regenerative medicine. These cells can be propagated in culture in an undifferentiated state but can be induced to differentiate into specialized cell types. Moreover, these cells provide a powerful model system for studies of cellular identity and early mammalian development. Recent studies have provided insights into the transcriptional control of embryonic stem cell state, including the regulatory circuitry underlying pluripotency. These studies have, as a consequence, uncovered fundamental mechanisms that control mammalian gene expression, connect gene expression to chromosome structure, and contribute to human disease.

Characterization of nuclear sirtuins: molecular mechanisms and physiological relevance

Sirtuins are protein deacetylases/mono-ADP-ribosyltransferases found in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. This group of enzymes relies on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) as a cofactor linking their activity to the cellular metabolic status. Originally found in yeast, Sir2 was discovered as a silencing factor and has been shown to mediate the effects of calorie restriction on lifespan extension. In mammals seven homologs (SIRT1-7) exist which evolved to have specific biological outcomes depending on the particular cellular context, their interacting proteins, and the genomic loci to where they are actively targeted. Sirtuins biological roles are highlighted in the early lethal phenotypes observed in the deficient murine models. In this chapter, we summarize current concepts on non-metabolic functions for sirtuins, depicting this broad family from yeast to mammals.

Functional genomics, proteomics, and regulatory DNA analysis in isogenic settings using zinc finger nuclease-driven transgenesis into a safe harbor locus in the human genome

Isogenic settings are routine in model organisms, yet remain elusive for genetic experiments on human cells. We describe the use of designed zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) for efficient transgenesis without drug selection into the PPP1R12C gene, a "safe harbor" locus known as AAVS1. ZFNs enable targeted transgenesis at a frequency of up to 15% following transient transfection of both transformed and primary human cells, including fibroblasts and hES cells. When added to this locus, transgenes such as expression cassettes for shRNAs, small-molecule-responsive cDNA expression cassettes, and reporter constructs, exhibit consistent expression and sustained function over 50 cell generations. By avoiding random integration and drug selection, this method allows bona fide isogenic settings for high-throughput functional genomics, proteomics, and regulatory DNA analysis in essentially any transformed human cell type and in primary cells.