Inhibitors of mitochondrial cation transport

Effect of hypothermia on the functional activity of liver mitochondria of grass snake (Natrix natrix): inhibition of succinate-fueled respiration and K+ transport, ROS-induced activation of mitochondrial permeability transition

The article considers the comparative analysis of the functional activity of mitochondria isolated from the liver of grass snakes, Natrix natrix (Linnaeus, 1758) that were kept at different temperatures (23-26 °C and 4-5 °C). It was found that liver mitochondria of hypothermia-exposed grass snakes are characterized by weak coupling of oxidative phosphorylation as compared to mitochondria of active animals which is caused by inhibition of succinate-fuelled respiration in ADP-stimulated state, as well as by activation of basal non-phosphorylating rate. Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration in hibernating animals is associated with a decrease in the activity of the respiratory chain complexes of organelles. A significant decrease in the rate of K⁺ transport in the liver mitochondria of hibernating animals has been established. Under these conditions, a decrease in the calcium capacity of the organelles was also revealed, which indicates a decrease in the resistance of the mitochondria of hibernating animals to the induction of the Ca²⁺-dependent mitochondrial pore. All these changes in the functional activity of mitochondria are observed on the background of increasing H₂O₂ production as well as increasing the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in phospholipid composition of mitochondrial membranes, which are the targets of reactive oxygen species. It can lead to increased formation of lipid peroxides and activation of destructive processes associated with the induction of Ca²⁺-dependent mitochondrial pore.

The Na+/H+ antiport in renal mitochondria

In isolated renal mitochondria, Na+ and Li+ stimulated H+ efflux from the mitochondrial matrix. In submitochondrial particles (SMP), Na+ flux was also coupled to H+ transport in the opposite direction. The overshoot of Na+ uptake in SMP with an outwardly directed H+ gradient indicated that downhill efflux of H+ through the mitochondrial membrane induced uphill transport of Na+. Similar to the Na+/H+ antiport in other types of mitochondria, the antiport in renal mitochondria was more sensitive to amiloride derivatives than to amiloride itself. Benzamil and ethylisopropylamiloride (EIPA), but not amiloride, inhibited the antiport, with 50% inhibition of 10(-4) M for both benzamil in mitochondria and EIPA in SMP. The Na+/H+ antiport in renal mitochondria had simple saturation kinetics for external Na+ [Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) = 3.27 +/- 0.63 mM; maximal velocity (Vmax) = 0.022 +/- 0.002 pH units/s] and Li+ (Km = 3.62 +/- 0.75 mM; Vmax = 0.022 +/- 0.002 pH units/s). NH4Cl and NH4 acetate stimulated Na+ efflux and inhibited Na+ uptake in SMP. Comparable results with NH4 acetate and chloride suggested that NH4+ modified Na+ transport through its direct interaction with the Na+/H+ antiport, rather than through the alkalinization of intra-SMP space from non-ionic diffusion of NH3. These results suggested that the Na+/H+ antiport may be a factor in the exit of NH4+ from renal mitochondria.

Slip and leak in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation

During oxidative phosphorylation by mammalian mitochondria part of the free energy stored in reduced substrates is dissipated and energy is released as heat. Here I review the mechanisms and the physiological significance of this phenomenon.

Sodium/proton antiporters in the mitochondrial inner membrane

The two mitochondrial Na+/H+ antiporters differ in several important respects, and the most physiologically significant of these may be their differences in regulation. The Mg2+-dependent Na+/H+ antiporter controls mitochondrial volume in a dangerous, high-K+ environment. To play this vital role, this porter must always lie poised far from K+/H+ equilibrium; i.e., it must be under dynamic regulation, as proposed in the Mg2+ carrier-brake hypothesis (7). Being regulated, it is not necessary for this antiporter to be cation-selective, since all electroneutral cation movements will be followed by redistributions of anions and water. On the other hand, there is no indication at present that the Mg2+-independent Na+/H+ antiporter is regulated. This transporter is therefore required to exhibit high discrimination against K+ in order to prevent the collapse of matrix volume dueto uncontrolled loss of K+ salts and water (4). Do the properties of the mitochondrial Na+/H+ antiporters help us in any way to understand the plasmalemmal Na+/H+ antiporters? I believe they do, if we allow that there are a limited number of ways in which nature constructs such porters. The difference in cation selectivities very likely reflects a fundamental structural difference between the two mitochondrial antiporters, and this difference appears to be mirrored in two types of plasmalemmal Na+/H+ antiporters. Thus, the Mg2+-independent Na+/H+ antiporter resembles the renal tubular Na+/H+ antiporter in its discrimination against K+ and its competitive inhibition by Li+. On the other hand, the Mg2+-dependent Na+/H+ antiporter resembles a cardiac sarcolemmal Na+/H+ antiporter which transports all alkali cations, including Na+ and K+, and which is inhibited by DCCD and amphiphilic amines (S. Kakar, A. Askari and K. Garlid, in preparation). The existence of the latter class of antiporter in plasmalemma may seem unlikely at first glance, since it would tend to catalyze Na+/K+ exchange and dissipate the effects of the Na+,K+-ATPase. Nevertheless, a sound design principle would be followed if the cell, like mitochondria, were to regulate volume by governing a passive back-flow process rather than an active transport process. In conclusion, it seems premature to conclude that plasma membranes contain only one type of Na+/H+ antiporter. Nor does it seem likely that there is an unlimited variety of such transporters. I propose as a working hypothesis that antiporters from both mitochondria and plasmalemma may be separated into two classes: Na+-selective and non-Na+-selective.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

An assessment of the chemiosmotic hypothesis of mitochondrial energy transduction

It is argued that a proton concentration difference and/or a membrane potential is not the form into which the free energy of the oxidation-reduction reactions of the mitochondrial respiratory chain is first transduced. It is suggested that the search for a chemical intermediate should be continued in spite of the conclusion by some investigators that the chemical hypothesis is untenable. It is asked whether pH changes when measured in solutions containing mitochondria can be interpreted as evidence for H+ movements, also, whether there is a continuous, renewable and stable electrochemical proton concentration difference (delta mu H+) across the mitochondrial membrane, and whether in fact the delta mu H+ is a necessary intermediate in the synthesis of ATP. The four postulates of Mitchell's chemiosmotic hypothesis of energy transduction are discussed point by point. It is agreed that "The systems are plugged through a topologically closed insulating membrane," which probably is not "a nonaqueous osmotic barrier," and which probably does not have an unusually "low permeability to solutes and to H+ and OH- in particular" when compared with other membranes. There is disagreement with the statement that "Respiratory and photoredox systems are chemiosmotic membrane-located protonmotive chains" in that it is suggested by others that chemiosmosis is chemically nonexistent and that thermodynamically it would lack control. The subsequent statement, "having a characteristic----H+/2 epsilon- stoichiometry," is rendered uncertain by the experimental findings of values greater than 2H+/2 epsilon-/site and probably as large as 4H+/2 epsilon-/site. The proposal that "The synthetase is a chemiosmotic membrane-located reversible motive ATPase" requires the assumption that the ATP synthetase is the same enzyme as the ATPase, but functioning in the reverse direction. It is considered possible that there are two enzymes in the multi-subunit ATPase complex: one the hydrolase, and the other the synthetase. The further proposal, "having characteristic----H+/P stoichiometry" requires that the ratio be 2 according to Mitchell. However, values of 3, as well as larger values, have been reported by others, which introduces a large element of uncertainty. There is no disagreement with the statement that "There are proton-linked (or hydroxyl ion-linked) solute porter systems for osmotic stabilization and metabolite transport." In fact, this may be the principal reason for having proton efflux or "proton-pumping.''(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Inhibition of succinate oxidation and K+ transport in mitochondria during hibernation

Respiration of liver mitochondria of ground squirrels changes with physiological state. The inhibition of respiration at the level of dehydrogenases occurs during hibernation which is spontaneously removed during arousal. The main mechanism causing a decrease in respiration during hibernation seems to be the inhibition of succinate oxidation, induced by oxaloacetic acid. This is evidenced by the removal of the inhibition by glutamic and isocitric acids. A close correlation between the changes of K+ transport in mitochondria and of the physiological state of hibernator is observed. During hibernation the K+ transport rate decreases 3 times and during arousal it increases 1.5-fold in comparison with the active animals. The K+ content in mitochondria of hibernating and active ground squirrels is the same, whereas during arousal it increases 2-fold.

Alterations in renal cortex cation homeostasis during mercuric chloride and gentamicin nephrotoxicity

To help better understand the role of changes in cellular cation homeostasis in the pathogenesis of renal tubular cell injury, the alterations in cation content of renal cortex and isolated renal cortical mitochondria occurring during models of nephrotoxicity secondary to gentamicin and HgCl2 were determined both during a developing phase of injury prior to the appearance of cell necrosis and after advanced injury when cell necrosis was present. At 3 hr after 5 mg/kg HgCl2 or after 4 daily doses of 100 mg/kg gentamicin, tubular cell integrity was still intact but mitochondrial functional changes were present. There were no alterations of renal cortex tissue electrolytes at this stage in the HgCl2 model but tissue K+, and more prominently, tissue Mg2+ were decreased in the gentamicin model. K+ and Mg2+ contents of isolated mitochondria were slightly reduced after HgCl2. Only K+ content was slightly reduced after gentamicin. No evidence for tissue or mitochondrial Ca2+ overload was present in either model. At 12 hr after 5 mg/kg HgCl2 or after 10 daily 100 mg/kg doses of gentamicin, widespread areas of tubular cell necrosis were present and the function of isolated mitochondria was severely compromised. Tissue electrolytes at this stage of injury in both models were characterized predominantly by a twofold increase in Na+ content and five- to sixfold increases in Ca2+. Isolated mitochondria showed marked decreases in K+ content and marked increases in content of Na+ and Ca2+. These data suggest that neither cellular and mitochondrial Ca2+ overload nor substantial changes in cellular Na+ and K+ homeostasis can be implicated in the early stages of renal tubular cell injury produced by gentamicin and HgCl2.

Interactions between bis(guanylhydrazones) and polyamines in isolated mitochondria

The interactions of naturally occurring polyamines: putrescine, spermidine and spermine, with anticancer bis-guanylhydrazones: methylglyoxal-bis(guanylhydrazone) (MGBG) and 4,4'-diacetyldiphenylurea-bis(guanylhydrazone) (DDUG) were investigated at the level of mitochondrial membrane. The effects of bis-guanylhydrazones on intact rat liver mitochondria were readily prevented or reversed by polyamines and these interactions were also affected by the mitochondrial transmembrane potential. Magnesium cations enhanced the protective action of polyamines. The data indicate that competition exists between the essential anticancer bis(guanylhydrazone) and polyamines for low affinity negatively charged binding sites at the outer surface of inner mitochondrial membrane. The study of drug interactions was extended to the level of isolated tumor mitochondria from rat HTC hepatoma and murine L1210 leukemia cells. A complicated pattern of interactions between the anticancer bis-guanylhydrazones and phenethylbiguanide was obtained.