1
|
Red nucleus structure and function: from anatomy to clinical neurosciences. Brain Struct Funct 2020; 226:69-91. [PMID: 33180142 PMCID: PMC7817566 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-020-02171-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The red nucleus (RN) is a large subcortical structure located in the ventral midbrain. Although it originated as a primitive relay between the cerebellum and the spinal cord, during its phylogenesis the RN shows a progressive segregation between a magnocellular part, involved in the rubrospinal system, and a parvocellular part, involved in the olivocerebellar system. Despite exhibiting distinct evolutionary trajectories, these two regions are strictly tied together and play a prominent role in motor and non-motor behavior in different animal species. However, little is known about their function in the human brain. This lack of knowledge may have been conditioned both by the notable differences between human and non-human RN and by inherent difficulties in studying this structure directly in the human brain, leading to a general decrease of interest in the last decades. In the present review, we identify the crucial issues in the current knowledge and summarize the results of several decades of research about the RN, ranging from animal models to human diseases. Connecting the dots between morphology, experimental physiology and neuroimaging, we try to draw a comprehensive overview on RN functional anatomy and bridge the gap between basic and translational research.
Collapse
|
2
|
Neural Signals in Red Nucleus during Reactive and Proactive Adjustments in Behavior. J Neurosci 2020; 40:4715-4726. [PMID: 32376779 PMCID: PMC7294803 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2775-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to adjust behavior is an essential component of cognitive control. Much is known about frontal and striatal processes that support cognitive control, but few studies have investigated how motor signals change during reactive and proactive adjustments in motor output. To address this, we characterized neural signals in red nucleus (RN), a brain region linked to motor control, as male and female rats performed a novel variant of the stop-signal task. We found that activity in RN represented the direction of movement and was strongly correlated with movement speed. Additionally, we found that directional movement signals were amplified on STOP trials before completion of the response and that the strength of RN signals was modulated when rats exhibited cognitive control. These results provide the first evidence that neural signals in RN integrate cognitive control signals to reshape motor outcomes reactively within trials and proactivity across them.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Healthy human behavior requires the suppression or inhibition of errant or maladaptive motor responses, often called cognitive control. While much is known about how frontal brain regions facilitate cognitive control, less is known about how motor regions respond to rapid and unexpected changes in action selection. To address this, we recorded from neurons in the red nucleus, a motor region thought to be important for initiating movement in rats performing a cognitive control task. We show that red nucleus tracks motor plans and that selectivity was modulated on trials that required shifting from one motor response to another. Collectively, these findings suggest that red nucleus contributes to modulating motor behavior during cognitive control.
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Ontogenetic changes in associative cerebellar learning have been examined extensively using eyeblink conditioning in infant humans and rats. The cerebellum is essential for eyeblink conditioning in adult and infant animals. The cerebellum receives input from the conditional stimulus (CS) through the pontine mossy fiber projection and unconditional stimulus (US) input through the inferior olive climbing fiber projection. Coactivation of the CS and US pathways induces synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum, which is necessary for the conditional response. Ontogenetic changes in eyeblink conditioning are driven by developmental changes in the projections of subcortical sensory nuclei to the pontine nuclei and in the inhibitory projection from the cerebellar deep nuclei to the inferior olive. Developmental changes in the CS and US pathways limit the induction of learning-related plasticity in the cerebellum and thereby limit acquisition of eyeblink conditioning.
Collapse
|
4
|
The role of the middle cerebellar peduncle in acquisition and retention of the rabbit’s classically conditioned nictitating membrane response. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03330508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
5
|
Freeman JH, Steinmetz AB. Neural circuitry and plasticity mechanisms underlying delay eyeblink conditioning. Learn Mem 2011; 18:666-77. [PMID: 21969489 DOI: 10.1101/lm.2023011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Pavlovian eyeblink conditioning has been used extensively as a model system for examining the neural mechanisms underlying associative learning. Delay eyeblink conditioning depends on the intermediate cerebellum ipsilateral to the conditioned eye. Evidence favors a two-site plasticity model within the cerebellum with long-term depression of parallel fiber synapses on Purkinje cells and long-term potentiation of mossy fiber synapses on neurons in the anterior interpositus nucleus. Conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus inputs arise from the pontine nuclei and inferior olive, respectively, converging in the cerebellar cortex and deep nuclei. Projections from subcortical sensory nuclei to the pontine nuclei that are necessary for eyeblink conditioning are beginning to be identified, and recent studies indicate that there are dynamic interactions between sensory thalamic nuclei and the cerebellum during eyeblink conditioning. Cerebellar output is projected to the magnocellular red nucleus and then to the motor nuclei that generate the blink response(s). Tremendous progress has been made toward determining the neural mechanisms of delay eyeblink conditioning but there are still significant gaps in our understanding of the necessary neural circuitry and plasticity mechanisms underlying cerebellar learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John H Freeman
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hawkins RD, Clark GA, Kandel ER. Cell Biological Studies of Learning in Simple Vertebrate and Invertebrate Systems. Compr Physiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.cp010502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
7
|
Thompson R, Steinmetz J. The role of the cerebellum in classical conditioning of discrete behavioral responses. Neuroscience 2009; 162:732-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
8
|
Lepora NF, Porrill J, Yeo CH, Evinger C, Dean P. Recruitment in retractor bulbi muscle during eyeblink conditioning: EMG analysis and common-drive model. J Neurophysiol 2009; 102:2498-513. [PMID: 19675295 PMCID: PMC2775390 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00204.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To analyze properly the role of the cerebellum in classical conditioning of the eyeblink and nictitating membrane (NM) response, the control of conditioned response dynamics must be better understood. Previous studies have suggested that the control signal is linearly related to the CR as a result of recruitment within the accessory abducens motoneuron pool, which acts to linearize retractor bulbi muscle and NM response mechanics. Here we investigate possible recruitment mechanisms. Data came from simultaneous recordings of NM position and multiunit electromyographic (EMG) activity from the retractor bulbi muscle of rabbits during eyeblink conditioning, in which tone and periocular shock act as conditional and unconditional stimuli, respectively. Action potentials (spikes) were extracted and classified by amplitude. Firing rates of spikes with different amplitudes were analyzed with respect to NM response temporal profiles and total EMG spike firing rate. Four main regularities were revealed and quantified: 1) spike amplitude increased with response amplitude; 2) smaller spikes always appeared before larger spikes; 3) subsequent firing rates covaried for spikes of different amplitude, with smaller spikes always firing at higher rates than larger ones; and 4) firing-rate profiles were approximately Gaussian for all amplitudes. These regularities suggest that recruitment does take place in the retractor bulbi muscle during conditioned NM responses and that all motoneurons receive the same command signal (common-drive hypothesis). To test this hypothesis, a model of the motoneuron pool was constructed in which motoneurons had a range of intrinsic thresholds distributed exponentially, with threshold linearly related to EMG spike amplitude. Each neuron received the same input signal as required by the common-drive assumption. This simple model reproduced the main features of the data, suggesting that conditioned NM responses are controlled by a common-drive mechanism that enables simple commands to determine response topography in a linear fashion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N F Lepora
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Pong M, Horn KM, Gibson AR. Pathways for control of face and neck musculature by the basal ganglia and cerebellum. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 58:249-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2007] [Revised: 11/20/2007] [Accepted: 11/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
10
|
Lalonde R, Strazielle C. Brain regions and genes affecting postural control. Prog Neurobiol 2007; 81:45-60. [PMID: 17222959 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2006.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2006] [Revised: 08/05/2006] [Accepted: 11/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Postural control is integrated in all facets of motor commands. The role of cortico-subcortical pathways underlying postural control, including cerebellum and its afferents (climbing, mossy, and noradrenergic fibers), basal ganglia, motor thalamus, and parieto-frontal neocortex has been identified in animal models, notably through the brain lesion technique in rats and in mice with spontaneous and induced mutations. These studies are complemented by analyses of the factors underlying postural deficiencies in patients with cerebellar atrophy. With the gene deletion technique in mice, specific genes expressed in cerebellum encoding glutamate receptors (Grid2 and Grm1) and other molecules (Prkcc, Cntn6, Klf9, Syt4, and En2) have also been shown to affect postural control. In addition, transgenic mouse models of the synucleinopathies and of Huntington's disease cause deficiencies of motor coordination resembling those of patients with basal ganglia damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Lalonde
- Université de Rouen, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie, INSERM U614, IFRMP, 76183 Rouen Cedex,
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Oulad Ben Taib N, Manto M. Hemicerebellectomy impairs the modulation of cutaneomuscular reflexes by the motor cortex following repetitive somatosensory stimulation. Brain Res 2006; 1090:110-5. [PMID: 16638607 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2006] [Revised: 03/14/2006] [Accepted: 03/16/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We examined the cutaneomuscular reflex of the plantaris muscle of rats in response to cutaneous stimulation in isolation and in conjunction with subthreshold high-frequency trains of stimuli applied on the motor cortex, prior to and following repetitive peripheral stimulation. The cutaneomuscular reflex was also investigated under the same paradigm following hemicerebellectomy. The enhancement of cutaneomuscular responses associated with subthreshold high-frequency trains of stimulation following repetitive peripheral stimulation was prevented by hemicerebellectomy. Our results suggest that the pathways passing through the cerebellum are involved in the calibration of cutaneomuscular responses.
Collapse
|
12
|
Ben Taib NO, Nordeyn OBT, Manto M, Mario M, Pandolfo M, Massimo P, Brotchi J, Jacques B. Hemicerebellectomy blocks the enhancement of cortical motor output associated with repetitive somatosensory stimulation in the rat. J Physiol 2005; 567:293-300. [PMID: 15946961 PMCID: PMC1474167 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2005.088229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Repetitive peripheral stimulation is associated with an enhancement of the intensity of corticomotor responses. We analysed the effects of hemicerebellectomy on the modulation of cortical motor output associated with repetitive electrical stimulation of the sciatic nerve in the rat. Hemicerebellectomy blocked the enhancement of the corticomotor response. The cerebellum is a key player in this form of short-term plasticity.
Collapse
|
13
|
Hardiman MJ, Yeo CH. The Effect of Kainic Acid Lesions of the Cerebellar Cortex on the Conditioned Nictitating Membrane Response in the Rabbit. Eur J Neurosci 2002; 4:966-980. [PMID: 12106432 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1992.tb00123.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In previous studies we have shown that aspiration lesions centred on lobule HVI in the cerebellar cortex of rabbits produce a profound loss of conditioned nictitating membrane (NM) responses. Because aspiration lesions of the cerebellar cortex cause retrograde degeneration in precerebellar nuclei we tested in rabbits whether excitotoxic lesions of the cerebellar cortex that spare these precerebellar nuclei also cause a loss of conditioned NM responses. Following discrete injections of kainic acid into HVI and rostral regions of the adjacent folia of crus I and crus II, we observed an immediate loss of conditioned NM responses. Following extensive retraining several subjects showed a gradual recovery of conditioned responses. But subjects with the most complete lesions never recovered more than a few conditioned responses. Kainic acid lesions did not change ipsilateral unconditioned reflex responses to a range of stimulus intensities. The kainic acid injections caused obvious degeneration of Purkinje and granule cells but not of the precerebellar nuclei. We conclude that HVI and parts of crus I and crus II are essential for normal retention of conditioned NM responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Hardiman
- Neuroscience and Behaviour Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Nolan BC, Nicholson DA, Freeman JH. Blockade of GABAA receptors in the interpositus nucleus modulates expression of conditioned excitation but not conditioned inhibition of the eyeblink response. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2002; 37:293-310. [PMID: 12645845 PMCID: PMC1393457 DOI: 10.1007/bf02734250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum and related brainstem structures are essential for excitatory eyeblink conditioning. Recent evidence indicates that the cerebellar interpositus and lateral pontine nuclei may also play critical roles in conditioned inhibition (CI) of the eyeblink response. The current study examined the role of GABAergic inhibition of the interpositus nucleus in retention of CI. Male Long-Evans rats were implanted with a cannula positioned just above or in the anterior interpositus nucleus before training. The rats were trained with two different tones and a light as conditioned stimuli, and a periorbital shock as the unconditioned stimulus. CI training consisted of four phases: 1) excitatory conditioning (8 kHz tone paired with shock); 2) feature-negative discrimination (2 kHz tone paired with shock or 2 kHz tone concurrent with light); 3) summation test (8 kHz tone or 8 kHz tone concurrent with light); and 4) retardation test (light paired with shock). After reaching a criterion level of performance on the feature-negative discrimination (40% discrimination), 0.5 microl picrotoxin (a GABAA receptor antagonist) was infused at one of four concentrations, each concentration infused during separate test sessions. Picrotoxin transiently impaired conditioned responses during trials with the excitatory stimulus (tone) in a dose-dependent manner, but did not significantly impact responding to the inhibitory compound stimulus (tone-light). The results suggest that expression of conditioned inhibition of the eyeblink conditioned response does not require GABAergic inhibition of neurons in the anterior interpositus nucleus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John H. Freeman
- Address for Correspondence: John Freeman, Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, E–11 Seashore Hall, Iowa City, IA 52242. Electronic mail may be sent to
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Nicholson DA, Freeman JH. Neuronal correlates of conditioned inhibition of the eyeblink response in the anterior interpositus nucleus. Behav Neurosci 2002. [DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.116.1.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
16
|
Robinson FR, Rice PM, Holleman JR, Berger TW. Projection of the magnocellular red nucleus to the region of the accessory abducens nucleus in the rabbit. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2001; 76:358-74. [PMID: 11726242 DOI: 10.1006/nlme.2001.4028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The projection of the magnocellular red nucleus (RNm) to the region of the accessory abducens nucleus (AABD) was traced in rabbit using the bidirectional tracer wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP). In one set of animals, recordings of antidromic responses from RNm neurons elicited by electrical stimulation of the rubrospinal tract were used to localize injections of WGA-HRP for orthograde labeling of RNm terminals. In a different set of animals, horseradish peroxidase was injected into the retractor bulbi muscle to retrogradely label motoneurons of the AABD. The positions of RNm fibers and terminals were examined and compared to the locations and distribution of AABD cell bodies and labeled dendrites. Analyses revealed that along the entire rostrocaudal extent of the AABD, RNm efferents terminate primarily lateral to, or in the lateral aspects of, labeled motoneurons. For the rostral AABD, RNm efferents terminate only lateral to the nucleus. Although the terminals are not positioned to contact cell bodies of the AABD, they could overlap with dendrites that extend in the lateral direction. RNm efferents terminate more extensively within the posterior AABD, overlapping within both dendritic and cell body regions of the nucleus. Even in this posterior region, however, RNm efferents were distributed primarily over the lateral half of the nucleus. These data show that RNm can monosynaptically influence the AABD, through primarily its lateral and posterior aspects. Our findings also show that a major target of RNm efferents is the reticular cell population located lateral to the AABD, suggesting that the RNm also may affect AABD motoneuronal output indirectly through its projection to reticular cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F R Robinson
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Freeman JH, Nicholson DA. Ontogenetic changes in the neural mechanisms of eyeblink conditioning. INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE PAVLOVIAN SOCIETY 2001; 36:15-35. [PMID: 11484994 DOI: 10.1007/bf02733945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The rodent eyeblink conditioning paradigm is an ideal model system for examining the relationship between neural maturation and the ontogeny of associative learning. Elucidation of the neural mechanisms underlying the ontogeny of learning is tractable using eyeblink conditioning because the necessary neural circuitry (cerebellum and interconnected brainstem nuclei) underlying the acquisition and retention of the conditioned response (CR) has been identified in adult organisms. Moreover, the cerebellum exhibits substantial postnatal anatomical and physiological maturation in rats. The eyeblink CR emerges developmentally between postnatal day (PND) 17 and 24 in rats. A series of experiments found that the ontogenetic emergence of eyeblink conditioning is related to the development of associative learning and not related to changes in performance. More recent studies have examined the relationship between the development of eyeblink conditioning and the physiological maturation of the cerebellum, a brain structure that is necessary for eyeblink conditioning in adult organisms. Disrupting cerebellar development with lesions or antimitotic treatments impairs the ontogeny of eyeblink conditioning. Studies of the development of physiological processes within the cerebellum have revealed striking ontogenetic changes in stimulus-elicited and learning-related neuronal activity. Neurons in the interpositus nucleus and Purkinje cells in the cortex exhibit developmental increases in neuronal discharges following the unconditioned stimulus (US) and in neuronal discharges that model the amplitude and time-course of the eyeblink CR. The developmental changes in CR-related neuronal activity in the cerebellum suggest that the ontogeny of eyeblink conditioning depends on the development of mechanisms that establish cerebellar plasticity. Learning and the induction of neural plasticity depend on the magnitude of the US input to the cerebellum. The role of developmental changes in the efficacy of the US pathway has been investigated by monitoring neuronal activity in the inferior olive and with stimulation techniques. The results of these experiments indicate that the development of the conditioned eyeblink response may depend on dynamic interactions between multiple developmental processes within the eyeblink neural circuitry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J H Freeman
- Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City 52242, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Ramnani N, Toni I, Josephs O, Ashburner J, Passingham RE. Learning- and expectation-related changes in the human brain during motor learning. J Neurophysiol 2000; 84:3026-35. [PMID: 11110829 DOI: 10.1152/jn.2000.84.6.3026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We have studied a simple form of motor learning in the human brain so as to isolate activity related to motor learning and the prediction of sensory events. Whole-brain, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to record activity during classical discriminative delay eyeblink conditioning. Auditory conditioned stimulus (CS+) trials were presented either with a corneal airpuff unconditioned stimulus (US, paired), or without a US (unpaired). Auditory CS- trials were never reinforced with a US. Trials were presented pseudorandomly, 66 times each. The subjects gradually produced conditioned responses to CS+ trials, while increasingly differentiating between CS+ and CS- trials. The increasing difference between hemodynamic responses for unpaired CS+ and for CS- trials evolved slowly during conditioning in the ipsilateral cerebellar cortex (Crus I/Lobule HVI), contralateral motor cortex and hippocampus. To localize changes that were related to sensory prediction, we compared trials on which the expected airpuff US failed to occur (Unpaired CS+) with trials on which it occurred as expected (Paired CS+). Error-related signals in the contralateral cerebellum and somatosensory cortex were seen to increase during learning as the sensory prediction became stronger. The changes seen in the ipsilateral cerebellar cortex may be due either to the violations of sensory predictions, or to learning-related increases in the excitability of cerebellar neurons to presentations of the CS+.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Ramnani
- Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Ivarsson M, Svensson P, Hesslow G. Contralateral cerebellar involvement in conditioned eyeblink responses. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2000; 124:309-16. [PMID: 10943134 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(00)24025-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Ivarsson
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Lund University, Sweden.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Voneida TJ. The effect of brachium conjunctivum transection on a conditioned limb response in the cat. Behav Brain Res 2000; 109:167-75. [PMID: 10762686 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(99)00169-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Seven cats were trained to perform a forelimb conditioned response to a paired tone conditioned stimulus (CS)/shock unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Brachium conjunctivum section ipsilateral to the trained limb was carried out following criterion conditioned response (CR) performance. Lesion sites were identified histologically and further confirmed by observation of cellular changes in the dentate and interpositus nuclei ipsilateral to the section. The brachium conjunctivum was found to have been sectioned in four of the seven subjects. Each of these animals demonstrated a total or near-total loss of the CR. Extended postoperative training resulted in no increase in CR performance levels. The unconditioned response (UCR) remained unaffected, as did limb placing, accuracy of striking at moving objects, grooming, running and walking. The results are discussed in the context of an earlier report by McCormick et al. [Bull Psychonom Soc 1981;18:103-5], in which section of the superior cerebellar peduncle was found to abolish a conditioned nictitating membrane response in the rabbit. Taken together, they support the contention of Lavond [Annu Rev Psychol 1993;44:317-42], Thompson [In: Sprague JM, Epstein AN, editors. Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology. New York: Academic Press 1983, pp. 167-96], Yeo et al. [Behav Brain Res 1984;13:261-66; Exp Brain Res 1985;60:87-98; Exp Brain Res 1985;60:99-113; Exp Brain Res 1992;88:623-38.] and others that the cerebellum represents a critical site for acquisition and retention of a conditioned memory trace.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T J Voneida
- Department of Neurobiology, Northeastern Ohio Universities, College of Medicine, PO Box 95, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Five cats were trained to perform a forelimb conditioned response to a paired tone CS/shock UCS. Rubrospinal tract section ipsilateral to the trained limb was carried out following criterion CR performance. Lesion sites were identified histologically and further confirmed by observation of cellular changes in the red nucleus contralateral to the trained limb. Tractotomy resulted in total or near-total loss of the CR. Prolonged postoperative training resulted in no increase in CR performance levels. The UCR remained unaffected, as did limb placing, accuracy of striking at moving objects, grooming, running and walking. Training of the opposite limb in two subjects resulted in mean scores of 90 and 85% within three sessions. Control lesions in those subjects resulted in no changes in CR performance scores. The red nucleus receives a substantial input from sensorimotor cortex and cerebellum, both of which have been shown to represent essential parts of the brain circuitry involved in associative learning and memory. Since pyramidotomy has no effect on limb CR performance [Vonedia TJ. Exp Neurol 1976;19:483-493], the possible role of the red nucleus/rubrospinal tract is discussed in terms of a critical trigger area for the expression of a learned motor response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T J Voneida
- Department of Neurobiology, Northeastern Ohio Universities, College of Medicine, Rootstown 44272, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
The cerebellum and red nucleus are not required for In vitro classical conditioning of the turtle abducens nerve response. J Neurosci 1998. [PMID: 9391026 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.17-24-09736.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of the cerebellum during motor learning is a controversial issue. Many authors have suggested that the cerebellum and its connections with the red nucleus are essential for the acquisition of the conditioned eye blink reflex. Although there is little argument that the cerebellum is an important component to the generation of the conditioned response (CR), a number of studies have suggested that the cerebellum is not essential for conditioning. Using an in vitro model of the classically conditioned turtle abducens nerve response, we investigated the effect of cerebellar and red nucleus lesions on the acquisition, extinction, and reacquisition of CRs. Neural discharge was recorded from the abducens nerve after a single shock unconditioned stimulus (US) was applied to the ipsilateral trigeminal nerve. When the US was paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS) applied to the posterior eighth, or auditory, nerve, a positive slope of CR acquisition was recorded in the abducens nerve. After extinction stimuli in which the CS and US were alternated, the number of CRs decreased to near zero. When the CS and US were once again paired, reacquisition at a faster rate was recorded. The CRs showed unusual timing features compared with preparations in which the cerebellum was intact; they had significantly shorter latencies and showed burst-like responses. These data demonstrate that it is possible to classically condition this in vitro preparation in the absence of the cerebellum and red nucleus. However, the latencies of CRs were found to be dramatically altered in the cerebellar-lesioned preparations, suggesting that the cerebellum does play a role in the timing of the CR.
Collapse
|
23
|
Ryou JW, Cho SY, Kim HT. Lesion of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus or the red nucleus affects classically conditioned neuronal activity in the hippocampus. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1998; 22:169-85. [PMID: 9533174 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-5846(97)00187-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
1. The cerebellum and the hippocampus have been known to be neural structures involved in classical conditioning of the nictitating membrane response in rabbits. The neuronal activities related to conditioning are observed in both structures. It is uncertain, however, whether these conditioning-related neuronal activities are established in parallel or hierarchically. 2. The present study was conducted to observe the effects of lesions of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus(INT) or the red nucleus(RN) on conditioned hippocampal neuronal activity. 3. Rabbits in the first experiment were trained by standard delay conditioning and then given INT lesion by injecting the kainic acid through a cannula previously implanted. Lesions of INT abolished conditioned neuronal responses in the hippocampal CA1 area, which had been established before lesioning, as well as behavioral conditioned responses(CRs). 4. The second experiment was to examine if conditioning-related activities in the hippocampus would develop after RN was lesioned with INT intact. Rabbits were first given unilateral electrolytic lesions of RN followed by conditioning sessions. Besides a few CRs, they failed to show an increase in hippocampal CA1 activity. When training was switched to the contralateral eye, animals showed robust CRs and hippocampal responses immediately. However, training reswitched to the original eye, behavioral and neuronal responses disappeared again. 5. These results suggest that conditioned neuronal activities in the hippocampus depends on the cerebellum and that conditioning-related inputs from INT via RN may be critical for these conditioned neuronal response in the hippocampus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J W Ryou
- Department of Psychology, Korea University, Seoul, Korea.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Thompson RF, Bao S, Chen L, Cipriano BD, Grethe JS, Kim JJ, Thompson JK, Tracy JA, Weninger MS, Krupa DJ. Associative learning. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1997; 41:151-89. [PMID: 9378587 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60351-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
This chapter reviews evidence demonstrating the essential role of the cerebellum and its associated circuitry in the learning and memory of classical conditioning of discrete behavioral responses (e.g., eyeblink, limb flexion, head turn). It now seems conclusive that the memory traces for this basic category of associative learning are formed and stored in the cerebellum. Lesion, neuronal recording, electrical microstimulation, and anatomical procedures have been used to identify the essential conditioned stimulus (CS) circuit, including the pontine mossy fiber projections to the cerebellum; the essential unconditioned stimulus (US) reinforcing or teaching circuit, including neurons in the inferior olive (dorsal accessory olive) projecting to the cerebellum as climbing fibers; and the essential conditioned response (CR) circuit, including the interpositus nucleus, its projection via the superior cerebellar peduncle to the magnocellular red nucleus, and rubral projections to premotor and motor nuclei. Each major component of the eyeblink CR circuit was reversibly inactivated both in trained animals and over the course of training. In all cases in trained animals, inactivation abolished the CR (and the UR as well when motor nuclei were inactivated). When animals were trained during inactivation (and not exhibiting CRs) and then tested without inactivation, animals with inactivation of the motor nuclei, red nucleus, and superior peduncle had fully learned, whereas animals with inactivation of a very localized region of the cerebellum (anterior interpositus and overlying cortex) had not learned at all. Consequently, the memory traces are formed and stored in the cerebellum. Several alternative possibilities are considered and ruled out. Both the cerebellar cortex and the interpositus nucleus are involved in the memory storage process, suggesting that a phenomenon-like long-term depression (LTD) is involved in the cerebellar cortex and long-term potentiation (LTP) is involved in the interpositus. The experimental findings reviewed in this chapter provide perhaps the first conclusive evidence for the localization of a basic form of memory storage to a particular brain region, namely the cerebellum, and indicate that the cerebellum is indeed a cognitive machine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R F Thompson
- Neuroscience Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Krupa DJ, Thompson RF. Inactivation of the superior cerebellar peduncle blocks expression but not acquisition of the rabbit's classically conditioned eye-blink response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995; 92:5097-101. [PMID: 7761454 PMCID: PMC41855 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.92.11.5097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The localization of sites of memory formation within the mammalian brain has proven to be a formidable task even for simple forms of learning and memory. Recent studies have demonstrated that reversibly inactivating a localized region of cerebellum, including the dorsal anterior interpositus nucleus, completely prevents acquisition of the conditioned eye-blink response with no effect upon subsequent learning without inactivation. This result indicates that the memory trace for this type of learning is located either (i) within this inactivated region of cerebellum or (ii) within some structure(s) efferent from the cerebellum to which output from the interpositus nucleus ultimately projects. To distinguish between these possibilities, two groups of rabbits were conditioned (by using two conditioning stimuli) while the output fibers of the interpositus (the superior cerebellar peduncle) were reversibly blocked with microinjections of the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin. Rabbits performed no conditioned responses during this inactivation training. However, training after inactivation revealed that the rabbits (trained with either conditioned stimulus) had fully learned the response during the previous inactivation training. Cerebellar output, therefore, does not appear to be essential for acquisition of the learned response. This result, coupled with the fact that inactivation of the appropriate region of cerebellum completely prevents learning, provides compelling evidence supporting the hypothesis that the essential memory trace for the classically conditioned eye-blink response is localized within the cerebellum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D J Krupa
- Neurosciences Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089-2520, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Bloedel JR, Bracha V. On the cerebellum, cutaneomuscular reflexes, movement control and the elusive engrams of memory. Behav Brain Res 1995; 68:1-44. [PMID: 7619302 DOI: 10.1016/0166-4328(94)00171-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the role of the cerebellum in regulating cutaneomuscular reflexes and provides a hypothesis regarding the way in which this action contributes to the coordination of goal-directed movements of the extremities. Specific attention is directed towards the cerebellum's role in conditioned and unconditioned eyeblink reflexes and limb withdrawal reflexes as models of its interactions with the cutaneomuscular reflex systems. The implications regarding the cerebellum as a storage site for motor engrams also is discussed in the context of these two behaviors. The proposed hypothesis suggests that the cerebellum regulates important features of the cutaneomuscular reflex circuits including the integration of their activity with descending pathways in a manner that implements these fundamental reflex circuits in the organization and control of goal-directed movements of the extremities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J R Bloedel
- Division of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St.-Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ 85013-4496, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bracha V, Webster ML, Winters NK, Irwin KB, Bloedel JR. Effects of muscimol inactivation of the cerebellar interposed-dentate nuclear complex on the performance of the nictitating membrane response in the rabbit. Exp Brain Res 1994; 100:453-68. [PMID: 7813683 DOI: 10.1007/bf02738405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Intracranial microinjections of the GABAA agonist muscimol were used to assess the involvement of the dentato-interposed cerebellar nuclear complex in the performance of the conditioned (CR) and unconditioned (UR) nictitating membrane responses in the rabbit. Specifically, the experiments test the hypothesis that the cerebellar nuclei are involved in the performance of both the CRs and URs. The experiments employed temporary nuclear lesions to disrupt the CRs in order to examine parallel effects on URs. Animals were conditioned in a standard delay conditioning paradigm. Injection sites at which the muscimol application disrupted execution of the CRs were identified in each rabbit. Once these sites were found, the effects of muscimol and saline injections were evaluated while alternating paired trials with unpaired trials in which only the unconditioned stimuli were applied. There are two main findings in the present study. First, the activation of the GABAA receptors in the dentato-interposed cerebellar nuclear region reduced the amplitude and increased the latency of the UR. This change in the UR closely paralleled the disruption of the CR. This observation is consistent with the notion that the cerebellum is involved in the regulation of defensive flexion reflexes. Second, cerebellar nuclear inactivation did not eliminate the tone-induced enhancement of the UR. This finding suggests the presence of cerebellum-independent circuits subserving the intermodal interaction between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Bracha
- Division of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85013
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Anderson BJ, Steinmetz JE. Cerebellar and brainstem circuits involved in classical eyeblink conditioning. Rev Neurosci 1994; 5:251-73. [PMID: 7889216 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro.1994.5.3.251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Model systems are one useful strategy for the investigation of the mechanisms of learning. Whereas mammalian model systems generally do not offer the ease of identifying circuitry and exploring cellular mechanisms of learning that is realized with invertebrate preparations /37,97/, research involving the rabbit classical eyeblink conditioning paradigm has now reached the state at which much of the basic conditioning neural circuit appears to have been identified /9,65,66,85,89,91/. Despite a dispute as to precisely where in the circuitry convergence of the associated stimuli may occur, there is substantial evidence identifying the stimulus input pathways and motor output pathway. The present summary of this research details these paths. In addition, the proposed sites of convergence of the conditioning stimuli are discussed. Finally, a hypothesized neural circuit responsible for classical eyeblink conditioning is presented along with some suggestions for future research directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B J Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington 47405
| | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Bracha V, Stewart SL, Bloedel JR. The temporary inactivation of the red nucleus affects performance of both conditioned and unconditioned nictitating membrane responses in the rabbit. Exp Brain Res 1993; 94:225-36. [PMID: 8359239 DOI: 10.1007/bf00230290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
These experiments are part of a series of studies examining the role of the red nucleus in the performance of the conditioned and unconditioned nictitating membrane reflexes in the rabbit. Specifically, the experiments test the hypothesis that the temporary inactivation of the red nucleus selectively affects the performance of the conditioned reflex. The experiments were designed to assess the effects of lidocaine and control saline microinjections on conditioned as well as unconditioned responses in both paired and unpaired trials. Rabbits were chronically implanted with cannulae through which small injecting tubes were passed stereotaxically to the red nucleus. The animals were conditioned using a delay paradigm in which a 1 kHz tone and an air puff applied to the cornea were used as the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, respectively. Once conditioned, the effects of either lidocaine or saline injection were evaluated while alternating paired trials with unpaired trials in which only the air puff was applied. The principal finding of this study was that the amplitudes of both the conditioned and unconditioned responses were reduced following lidocaine injection into the red nucleus. The effect on the unconditioned response amplitude could not be ascribed to any interaction between the conditioned and unconditioned responses, since it also was present in the unpaired trials. The reduction in amplitude of the conditioned and unconditioned responses was shown to be correlated with changes in other characteristics of the same responses. The data suggest that the red nucleus contributes to the performance of both the conditioned and unconditioned nictitating membrane reflexes and consequently is not likely to be involved only in pathways responsible for mediating and/or storing the engram for the conditioned reflex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Bracha
- Division of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85013
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
The localization of sites of memory formation within the brain has proven to be a formidable task even for simple forms of learning and memory. In order to localize a particular site of memory formation within the brain, the rabbit eyeblink response was classically conditioned while regions of the cerebellum or red nucleus were temporarily inactivated by microinfusions of the gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist muscimol. Cerebellar inactivation completely blocked learning but had no effect on subsequent learning after inactivation, whereas red nucleus inactivation did not prevent learning but did block the expression of conditioned responses. The site of memory formation for this learned response thus appears to be localized within the cerebellum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D J Krupa
- Neurosciences Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Guerra-Seijas MJ, Labandeira Garcia J, Tobio J, Gonzalez F. Neurons located in the trigeminal sensory complex and the lateral pontine tegmentum project to the oculomotor nucleus in the rabbit. Brain Res 1993; 601:1-13. [PMID: 8431757 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(93)91689-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Neurons located in the trigeminal sensory complex (TSC) and the lateral pontine tegmentum (LPT) have been reported to project to both the accessory abducens and the facial nuclei, which innervate the retractor bulbi and orbicularis oculi muscles respectively, in order to control the nictitating membrane (NM) and eyelid defensive reflex. Since muscles innervated by the oculomotor nucleus (OCM) also appear to be involved in this reflex, retrograde and anterograde tracers were used in this study to determine whether there are projections from the TSC and LPT to the OCM in the rabbit. Injections of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the OCM nucleus labeled neurons in the LPT surrounding the trigeminal motor nucleus dorsally, laterally and ventrally. Only a few scattered neurons were found in the principal and spinal trigeminal nuclei. Injection of biocytin in the LPT area containing most of the HRP-labeled neurons caused anterograde labeling of fibers that crossed the midline and ascended just dorsal to the contralateral medial lemniscus. A proportion of these fibers coursed in a dorsal direction to enter and terminate within the OCM contralateral to the injection site. The location of the motoneuronal groups innervating the different extraocular muscles was studied by retrograde transport of HRP, and compared with the distribution of biocytin-labeled terminals. It was found that the terminals were located in the superior rectus and the levator palpebrae zone of the nucleus. We discuss the functional significance of this projection for the eyelid and NM response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J Guerra-Seijas
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Richards WG, Ricciardi TN, Moore JW. Activity of spinal trigeminal pars oralis and adjacent reticular formation units during differential conditioning of the rabbit nictitating membrane response. Behav Brain Res 1991; 44:195-204. [PMID: 1751010 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(05)80024-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Spinal trigeminal nucleus pars oralis (SpoV) is anatomically linked to brain circuitry thought to subserve unconditioned and conditioned nictitating membrane responses in rabbit. Single-unit recording from SpoV and adjacent reticular formation obtained during conditioning from awake, behaving animals revealed modulation of unit firing related to CS, US, and CR occurrence. SpoV participates directly in the unconditioned response and probably relays US information to other brain areas subserving conditioning. The presence of CR-related activity suggests that SpoV may participate in the CR motor output pathway, and may also provide CR-related information to cerebellum. Sensory convergence and CR-related activity in reticular formation mark this structure as a candidate locus of primary neuronal plasticity in this example of conditioning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- W G Richards
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01003
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Bracha V, Wu JZ, Cartwright S, Bloedel JR. Selective involvement of the spinal trigeminal nucleus in the conditioned nictitating membrane reflex of the rabbit. Brain Res 1991; 556:317-20. [PMID: 1933363 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(91)90322-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
These experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that a region associated with the trigeminal nuclear complex is selectively involved in mediating the classically conditioned nictitating membrane reflex in the rabbit. Microinjections of Lidocaine were used to produce a temporary, localized block of neural activity following the conditioning of the reflex using a standard tone/air puff-paired stimulus paradigm. Data indicate that the injection of Lidocaine at the medial pars oralis/reticular formation junction results in a selective suppression of the conditioned reflex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V Bracha
- Division of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85013
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Bloedel JR, Bracha V, Kelly TM, Wu JZ. Substrates for motor learning. Does the cerebellum do it all? Ann N Y Acad Sci 1991; 627:305-18. [PMID: 1883141 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb25934.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J R Bloedel
- Division of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, Arizona 85013
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Affiliation(s)
- C H Yeo
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, University College London, England
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Desmond JE, Moore JW. Single-unit activity in red nucleus during the classically conditioned rabbit nictitating membrane response. Neurosci Res 1991; 10:260-79. [PMID: 1652721 DOI: 10.1016/0168-0102(91)90083-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Previous investigations have suggested that the cerebellum and associated brainstem structures, including the red nucleus, are essential for the expression of the classically conditioned nictitating membrane (NM) response. The present study examined the firing patterns of extracellularly-recorded single units in the red nucleus of the awake rabbit during differential conditioning. Tones were used as conditioned stimulus (CS+ and CS-) and periocular electrostimulation was used as the unconditioned stimulus (US). Most units exhibited one or more changes in firing rate during the presentation of the CS, and increases in firing were much more common than decreases. The onset of some of these changes appeared to be time-locked to the onset of the CS ('CS-locked' responses), while other changes were time-locked to the onset of the CR ('CR-locked' responses). About one-third of all CS-locked changes were CR-dependent, meaning that the neuronal response was reduced when the CR did not occur. About two-thirds of all CR-locked responses preceded the onset of the CR, and lead times varied considerably across units. Many CR-locked units were located in what has been described as a dorsal face region of the red nucleus. Most units responded to the US, and some of the US responses were CR-dependent: i.e., a smaller US response was evoked when a CR preceded the US than when the CR was absent. Our results support the notion that cerebellum-brainstem circuits are involved in generating NM CRs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J E Desmond
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01003
| | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Bartha GT, Thompson RF, Gluck MA. Sensorimotor Learning and the Cerebellum. RESEARCH NOTES IN NEURAL COMPUTING 1991. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-84545-1_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
|
38
|
Holstege G. Descending motor pathways and the spinal motor system: limbic and non-limbic components. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 1991; 87:307-421. [PMID: 1678191 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(08)63057-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Holstege
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Chapman PF, Steinmetz JE, Sears LL, Thompson RF. Effects of lidocaine injection in the interpositus nucleus and red nucleus on conditioned behavioral and neuronal responses. Brain Res 1990; 537:149-56. [PMID: 2085770 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(90)90351-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The role of the cerebellum and the red nucleus in the conditioned eyeblink response was assessed, using a combination of reversible lesions and multiple-unit extracellular recording in the awake, behaving rabbit. Lesion, recording, and stimulation experiments have indicated that both of these structures are involved in the performance of learned skeletal muscle responses. The present study sought to distinguish the relative contributions of the interpositus nucleus and the red nucleus to the expression of the learned response by recording behavior-related multiple unit activity in one structure while reversibly inactivating the other via injections of local anesthetic. Results indicate that inactivating either the interpositus or the red nucleus temporarily abolishes the learned eyeblink response. Injection of lidocaine into the interpositus also abolishes the neuronal unit model of the conditioned response in the red nucleus, while injection into the red nucleus does not affect the model in the interpositus. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the red nucleus acts as a relay for motor commands from the cerebellum, and that the plasticity that generates conditioned responses occurs in the cerebellum or an afferent structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P F Chapman
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Woodruff-Pak DS, Logan CG, Thompson RF. Neurobiological substrates of classical conditioning across the life span. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1990; 608:150-73; discussion 174-8. [PMID: 2075952 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb48896.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D S Woodruff-Pak
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Lavond DG, Logan CG, Sohn JH, Garner WD, Kanzawa SA. Lesions of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus abolish both nictitating membrane and eyelid EMG conditioned responses. Brain Res 1990; 514:238-48. [PMID: 2357540 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(90)91419-h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Both nictitating membrane extension and eyelid EMG activity were measured during classical conditioning of rabbits to tone-airpuff pairings. Both measures were highly correlated. Over trials, learning criterion was met earlier with eyelid EMG activity than with nictitating membrane extension. Within a trial, eyelid EMG preceded and was more robust than nictitating membrane extension. The rabbits were lesioned in the cerebellar interpositus nucleus and then trained for up to 26 days. Detailed analyses of tone alone trials demonstrate that the lesion abolished conditioned responses for both measures. These data confirm that conditioned responses are abolished by lesion of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D G Lavond
- Department of Psychology/SGM 501, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089-1061
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Kelly TM, Zuo CC, Bloedel JR. Classical conditioning of the eyeblink reflex in the decerebrate-decerebellate rabbit. Behav Brain Res 1990; 38:7-18. [PMID: 2346618 DOI: 10.1016/0166-4328(90)90019-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of these experiments was to test the hypothesis that a conditioned nictitating membrane reflex can be acquired in decerebrate rabbits in the absence of the cerebellum. Experiments examining the effects of large cerebellar lesions on the acquisition and performance of the conditioned reflex were performed in acutely prepared decerebrate rabbits. Most lesions encompassed all of the cerebellar nuclear regions ipsilateral to the eye receiving the unconditioned stimulus. In all rabbits included in this study the continuity between the cerebellar nuclei and the brainstem was interrupted, even in those preparations in which small regions of the nuclei were present in the lateral hemisphere. The findings demonstrate that these animals could acquire the conditioned reflex independent of whether conditioning had occurred prior to the cerebellectomy. Strong associativity was found between the latency of the conditioned response and the interstimulus interval between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. The behavior of the conditioned reflex observed in the decerebrate-decerebellate animals differed from that reported for awake intact rabbits in two ways. Once the conditioned behavior had been acquired, the percent of trials showing conditioned responses was somewhat less in decerebrate-decerebellate rabbits and was also more variable in these animals. The data demonstrate that the nictitating membrane reflex can be classically conditioned in the absence of the cerebellum, indicating that this structure is neither necessary nor sufficient for the acquisition of this type of conditioned behavior. In addition, an hypothesis is presented which addresses the difference between the data reported here and those previously reported by other laboratories based on observations in awake intact animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T M Kelly
- Division of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ 85013
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Abstract
The left cerebellar cortex was surgically aspirated in rabbits who were then subsequently trained for classical conditioning of the nictitating membrane. All rabbits were trained sequentially on both eyes. Rabbits with the lesion confined to the cerebellar cortex were able to learn with the eye ipsilateral to the lesion although it took many times longer than reported for either naive rabbits or for rabbits first trained on the unlesioned, contralateral side. Rabbits with lesions that included the cerebellar cortex and the cerebellar interpositus nucleus did not learn with the eye ipsilateral to the lesion. Learning with the eye contralateral to either type of lesion was always very rapid. It is now clear on the basis of this and previous studies that cerebellar cortex, unlike the cerebellar interpositus nucleus, is not essential for acquisition or relearning/retention of classical conditioning. However, cerebellar cortex normally plays an important role since acquisition of classical eyeblink conditioning is prolonged and of poor quality in its absence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D G Lavond
- Department of Psychology/SGM-501, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90089-1061
| | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Integrating Behavioral and Biological Models of Classical Conditioning. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60110-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
|
45
|
Some Relationships Between a Computational Model (Sop) and a Neural Circuit for Pavlovian (Rabbit Eyeblink) Conditioning. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
|
46
|
Abstract
Two experimental models for studying age-related changes in associative learning are described. One involves classical (Pavlovian) conditioning of eyeblink and heart rate in the rabbit. The second involves Pavlovian leg flexion and heart rate conditioning in the rat. Advantages and disadvantages of each model are discussed. Results with both models suggest differential effects of aging on acquisition of autonomic and somatomotor responses, thus underlining the utility of assessing multiple response systems to adequately characterize age-related changes in learning and memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S L Buchanan
- Neuroscience Laboratory, VA Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29201
| | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Haley DA, Thompson RF, Madden J. Pharmacological analysis of the magnocellular red nucleus during classical conditioning of the rabbit nictitating membrane response. Brain Res 1988; 454:131-9. [PMID: 3408999 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(88)90811-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Previous experiments have suggested that the red nucleus is an essential structure in the neural pathways subserving the conditioned responses (CRs) elicited in several simple associative learning paradigms. The present investigation confirms the involvement of the magnocellular red nucleus in production of the classically conditioned nictitating membrane response in the rabbit and suggests that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) processes within this structure are involved in expression of the CR. Specifically, these studies demonstrate that microinfusion of a GABA antagonist (either picrotoxin or bicuculline methiodide) into the magnocellular red nucleus can selectively and reversibly reduce or abolish retention of the CR, without altering the unconditioned reflex response. Furthermore, these pharmacological manipulations that disrupt the CR are both anatomically and pharmacologically specific, and demonstrate a predictable dose-dependent function. These findings suggest that GABAergic processes within the magnocellular red nucleus are part of the critical circuitry subserving the CR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D A Haley
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, California 94305
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Chapman PF, Steinmetz JE, Thompson RF. Classical conditioning does not occur when direct stimulation of the red nucleus or cerebellar nuclei is the unconditioned stimulus. Brain Res 1988; 442:97-104. [PMID: 3359261 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(88)91436-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The involvement of the cerebellum and the red nucleus in the classically conditioned nictitating membrane/eyeblink response in the rabbit is investigated using direct stimulation of the interpositus or the red nucleus as the unconditioned stimulus. Stimulation of either of these structures produced eye closure in naive animals, and this eye closure was paired with a tone in the standard Pavlovian conditioning paradigm. The results indicate that eyelid closure due to stimulation of either the red nucleus or the interpositus nucleus is not sufficient for the development of conditioned responses to the tone. Animals which had received interpositus stimulation as the unconditioned stimulus acquired the conditioned response to tone significantly faster following the substitution of air puff for stimulation than did those animals that had received red nucleus stimulation, or controls that did not receive any stimulation. However, animals that had been trained to tone-air puff could not retain the conditioned response after being switched to tone-interpositus stimulation. Lesions of the interpositus and the red nucleus through the stimulating electrodes were effective in impairing or abolishing conditioned responses. The results are interpreted to indicate that the red nucleus and interpositus are elements of the circuit that carries out the expression of the conditioned response. In addition the interpositus, but not the red nucleus, may be critical in the formation of the memory trace for the conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus association, by virtue of the greatly accelerated learning that results from its stimulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P F Chapman
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, CA 94305
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Robinson FR, Houk JC, Gibson AR. Limb specific connections of the cat magnocellular red nucleus. J Comp Neurol 1987; 257:553-77. [PMID: 2826551 DOI: 10.1002/cne.902570406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Afferent and efferent connections of the limb specific divisions of the cat magnocellular red nucleus (RNm) were traced using the bidirectional transport of wheatgerm agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase complex (WGA-HRP). Injection sites within forelimb or hindlimb RNm regions were identified by microelectrode recording and confirmed by the position of labeled rubrospinal terminals. Additional injections into structures that project to, or receive input from, RNm confirmed the somatotopic organization of these pathways. The forelimb region of RNm receives input from the posteriolateral part of the anterior interpositus nucleus (NIA) and the intermediate part of the posterior interpositus nucleus (NIP). The hindlimb region of RNm receives input from anteriomedial NIA and medial NIP. Terminals of NIA cells densely fill all of RNm, but terminals of NIP cells form a half shell on the medial, ventral, and posterior borders of RNm without encroaching on RNm's lateral edge or central core. Forelimb and hindlimb RNm are reciprocally connected with the caudal cuneate and gracile nuclei respectively. There is little or no input to RNm from the medial or lateral cerebellar nuclei. Forelimb RNm, which also contains a face representation, projects to the lateral reticular nucleus, cell group f of the inferior vestibular nucleus, the facial nucleus, the main sensory nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, the caudal cuneate nucleus, the parvicellular reticular formation, and cervical segments of the spinal cord. A few fibers from forelimb RNm project directly to motor neurons in the lower cervical cord. Hindlimb RNm projects to only the lateral reticular nucleus, gracile nucleus, and lower spinal segments. Forelimb and hindlimb RNm project to different regions of the lateral reticular nucleus with some overlap.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F R Robinson
- Physiology Department, Northwestern University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60611
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Mauk MD, Thompson RF. Retention of classically conditioned eyelid responses following acute decerebration. Brain Res 1987; 403:89-95. [PMID: 3828818 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(87)90126-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We show that classically conditioned eyelid responses are retained in albino rabbits following decerebration. The presence of these responses represents retention rather than reacquisition in that they are present in the initial trials following decerebration. This excludes the possibility that the post-decerebration conditioned responses are mediated by pathways different from those involved in the intact animal. These data indicate that the conditioned response pathway, and sites of plasticity, for eyelid conditioning are spared by decerebration and are contained within the brainstem and cerebellum.
Collapse
|