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Barreiro C, García-Estrada C. Proteomics and Penicillium chrysogenum: Unveiling the secrets behind penicillin production. J Proteomics 2018; 198:119-131. [PMID: 30414515 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 10/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Discovery, industrial production and clinical applications of penicillin, together with scientific findings on penicillin biosynthesis and its complex regulation, are model milestones of the historical evolution of the most recognized 'magic bullet' against microbial infections available in the worldwide market. Thousands of tons of penicillin produced nowadays are the result of a huge number of technical, industrial and scientific tackled and solved challenges. This combination of, sometimes unsuspected, findings has given Proteomics the chance to support the understanding of the physiology of the high-producing fungal strains and the development of enhanced mutants by means of inverse engineering. Thus, this review, which is part of the special issue entitled "A Tribute to J. Proteomics on its 10th Anniversary", describes how Proteomics has contributed to characterize different aspects related to penicillin production in Penicillium chrosogenum. It covers from global proteome characterizations (intracellular, extracellular and microbodies) to proteome-wide comparative analyses between different penicillin-producing mutant strains and conditions, paying special attention to the methodologies used, as well as to the most important outcomes. As a result, a guide of Proteomics approaches applied to the characterization of penicillin production by P. chrysogenum is detailed in the birthday of the Fleming's most relevant finding. SIGNIFICANCE: Although the discovery of penicillin is celebrating the 90th birthday and its clinical application is worldwide recognized, in fact, semisynthetic penicillins are still one of the most prescribed antibiotics, only the arrival of the post-genomic era during the first decade of the 21st century, and more precisely the Proteomics approaches, have contributed to unveil the industrial secrets behind penicillin production. This review provides relevant information, based on proteomics studies, about the molecular mechanisms responsible for increased penicillin titres, and therefore, may represent a clear model of inverse engineering in microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Barreiro
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Avda. Real 1 - Parque Científico de León, 24006 León, Spain; Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad de León, Campus de Ponferrada, Avda. Astorga s/n, 24401 Ponferrada, Spain.
| | - Carlos García-Estrada
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Avda. Real 1 - Parque Científico de León, 24006 León, Spain; Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 León, Spain
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Martín JF, Liras P. Enzymes involved in penicillin, cephalosporin and cephamycin biosynthesis. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2006; 39:153-87. [PMID: 2510473 DOI: 10.1007/bfb0051954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Zelder O, Hauer B. Environmentally directed mutations and their impact on industrial biotransformation and fermentation processes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2000; 3:248-51. [PMID: 10851161 DOI: 10.1016/s1369-5274(00)00084-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Microbial adaptation plays an important role in the selection of improved strains for biotechnological processes and for the maintenance and stability of the selected production strains. Most of the knowledge about adaptation processes and environmentally directed mutations originates from environmental microbiology and from studies on biological evolution. The increasing information on the molecular mechanisms of adapted mutations and on the development of methods frequently used in environmental and evolutionary microbiology, such as the selection in semi-continuous cultures or chemostats, can be used as input and tools for the improvement of industrial production organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Zelder
- BASF Aktiengesellschaft, Biotechnology, Ludwigshafen, D-67056, Germany.
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Tahoun MK. Gene manipulation by protoplast fusion and penicillin production by Penicillium chrysogenum. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 1993; 39-40:445-53. [PMID: 8323265 DOI: 10.1007/bf02919009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Hybrids have been obtained by protoplast fusion of nitrate-nonutilizing cnx- and acetate-nonutilizing fac- mutants of Penicillium chrysogenum strains 4/95 and 26/818, respectively. Induced haplodization of the hybrids allowed the recovery of stable segregants, which were screened for penicillin production. The penicillin-producing segregants showed a wide range of titers that reached for a certain mutant to 290-390% increase above the parent strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Tahoun
- Department of Agricultural Industries, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Alexandria, Egypt
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Kozma J, Bartók G, Szentirmai A. Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate level and beta-lactam formation in Penicillium chrysogenum. J Basic Microbiol 1993; 33:27-34. [PMID: 8386764 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620330106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The rate of penicillin formation in the medium containing lactose as sole carbon source markedly decreased after addition of glucose but at the same time the growth rate of fungal mycelium increased. Significant correlation was found between the formation of penicillin and the intracellular concentration of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate. It appears that penicillin production is influenced by the level of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kozma
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Kossuth Lajos University of Sciences, Debrecen, Hungary
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Mussenden P, Keshavarz T, Saunders G, Bucke C. Physiological studies related to the immobilization of Penicillium chrysogenum and penicillin production. Enzyme Microb Technol 1993; 15:2-7. [PMID: 7763358 DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(93)90108-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Using the production of penicillin by Penicillium chrysogenum as a model system, certain physiological aspects of immobilized and free cell cultures were compared. Reducing the immobilized viable spore loading (from 4 x 10(4) to 2 x 10(3) spores ml-1 gel) and initial bead diameter (from 3.5-4.0 to 1.5-2.0 mm) gave rise to an increase in the penicillin titer from 0.2 to 1.2 g l-1. Using these conditions in immobilized cell culture the growth phase was prolonged and the duration of expression of the isopenicillin N synthase gene (pcbC) was significantly extended when compared with free cell culture (150 h as opposed to 100 h). During the period of maximum penicillin production, different penicillin biosynthetic intermediates accumulated in the broth of free and immobilized cell cultures, reflecting a fundamental difference in cell physiology. Although the maximum specific productivity of penicillin production was reduced by immobilization, the average specific productivity increased when compared to free cell fermentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Mussenden
- Division of Biotechnology, School of Biological and Health Sciences, University of Westminster, London, UK
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Martin JF. Clusters of genes for the biosynthesis of antibiotics: Regulatory genes and overproduction of pharmaceuticals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992; 9:73-90. [PMID: 1368054 DOI: 10.1007/bf01569737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade numerous genes involved in the biosynthesis of antibiotics, pigments, herbicides and other secondary metabolites have been cloned. The genes involved in the biosynthesis of penicillin, cephalosporin and cephamycins are organized in clusters as occurs also with the biosynthetic genes of other antibiotics and secondary metabolites (see review by Martín and Liras [65]). We have cloned genes involved in the biosynthesis of beta-lactam antibiotics from five different beta-lactam producing organisms both eucaryotic (Penicillium chrysogenum, Cephalosporium acremonium (syn. Acremonium chrysogenum) Aspergillus nidulans) and procaryotic (Nocardia lactamdurans, Streptomyces clavuligerus). In P. chrysogenum and A. nidulans the organization of the pcbAB, pcbC and penDE genes for ACV synthetase, IPN synthase and IPN acyltransferase showed a similar arrangement. In A. chrysogenum two different clusters of genes have been cloned. The cluster of early genes encodes ACV synthetase and IPN synthase, whereas the cluster of late genes encodes deacetoxycephalosporin C synthetase/hydroxylase and deacetylcephalosporin C acetyltransferase. In N. lactamdurans and S. clavuligerus a cluster of early cephamycin genes has been fully characterized. It includes the lat (for lysine-6-aminotransferase), pcbAB (for ACV synthase) and pcbC (for IPN synthase) genes. Pathway-specific regulatory genes which act in a positive (or negative) form are associated with clusters of genes involved in antibiotic biosynthesis. In addition, widely acting positive regulatory elements exert a pleiotropic control on secondary metabolism and differentiation of antibiotic producing microorganisms. The application of recombinant DNA techniques will contribute significantly to the improvement of fermentation organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Martin
- Department of Ecology, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of León, Spain
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Martín JF. Biochemistry and molecular genetics of penicillin production in Penicillium chrysogenum. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1991; 646:193-201. [PMID: 1809189 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb18577.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J F Martín
- University of León, Faculty of Biology, Area of Microbiology, Spain
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Chang LT, McGrory EL, Elander RP, Hook DJ. Decreased production ofpara-hydroxypenicillin V in penicillin V fermentations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991; 7:175-9. [PMID: 1367508 DOI: 10.1007/bf01575880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Penicillin V (phenoxymethyl penicillin) is produced by industrial strains of Penicillium chrysogenum in the presence of phenoxyacetic acid (POAc), a side-chain precursor for the penicillin V molecule. The wild-type strain of P. chrysogenum produces an undesirable penicillin byproduct, para-hydroxypenicillin V (p-OH penicillin V), in addition to penicillin V, via para-hydroxylation of POAc and subsequent incorporation of the p-OH phenoxyacetic acid into the penicillin molecule. Most of the p-OH penicillin V is produced late in cycle when the POAc concentration in the medium is nearly depleted. The level of p-OH penicillin V produced by the control strain ranges up to 10-15% of the total penicillins produced. 3-Phenoxypropionic acid and p-bromophenylacetic acid partially inhibit the formation of p-OH penicillin V with a minimal effect on penicillin V productivity. Mutants deficient in their ability to hydroxylate POAc were found to produce lower levels of p-OH penicillin V. Multi-step mutation and screening, starting with the wild-type strain, have culminated in isolation of mutants which produce p-OH penicillin V as 1% of the total penicillins with no adverse effect on penicillin V productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L T Chang
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, Industrial Division, Syracuse, NY 13221-4755
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Kovacevic S, Tobin MB, Miller JR. The beta-lactam biosynthesis genes for isopenicillin N epimerase and deacetoxycephalosporin C synthetase are expressed from a single transcript in Streptomyces clavuligerus. J Bacteriol 1990; 172:3952-8. [PMID: 1694525 PMCID: PMC213379 DOI: 10.1128/jb.172.7.3952-3958.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Isopenicillin N isomerase (epimerase) has been purified from Streptomyces clavuligerus, and the amino acid sequence of the N-terminus has been determined. By using single oligonucleotide probes based on high GC codon bias ("guessmers"), the translation start codons were determined for two successive genes in the beta-lactam-biosynthetic pathway and mapped within a 3.6-kilobase-pair KpnI restriction fragment. The epimerase gene (cefD) was located immediately upstream of the deacetoxycephalosporin C synthetase (expandase) gene (cefE) that was characterized previously. cefD was sequenced and expressed in Escherichia coli; the resulting cell extracts contained epimerase activity. Western immunoblots demonstrated that a protein comigrated with purified S. clavuligerus epimerase at 44 kilodaltons. cefD and cefE were separated by an 81-base-pair segment. The DNA sequence upstream of the epimerase gene had a high AT content, suggestive of a promoter region. Primer extension analysis of S. clavuligerus mRNA showed that the start of transcription occurred approximately 130 base pairs upstream of the epimerase translation start site; Northern (RNA blot) analysis revealed a hybridization signal large enough to code for both epimerase and expandase, and nuclease S1 protection assays showed that a single message may code for epimerase, expandase, and another unknown protein. When cefD and cefE were placed in an expression vector, concomitant synthesis of both epimerase and expandase occurred in E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kovacevic
- Department of Molecular Genetics Research, Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, Indiana 16285
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Barredo JL, Díez B, Alvarez E, Martín JF. Large amplification of a 35-kb DNA fragment carrying two penicillin biosynthetic genes in high penicillin producing strains of Penicillium chrysogenum. Curr Genet 1989; 16:453-9. [PMID: 2515004 DOI: 10.1007/bf00340725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The isopenicillin N synthase (pcbC) and acyl-CoA:6-APA acyltransferase (penDE) genes of Penicillium chrysogenum were located in a 19.5-kb DNA fragment that had been previously cloned in phage vector EMBL3. This 19.5-kb DNA fragment was mapped with several endonucleases, and the pcbC and penDE genes were located by hybridization with probes corresponding to internal fragments of each gene. A low penicillin producing strain (P. chrysogenum Wis 54-1255) and two high producing strains (AS-P-78 and P2) showed hybridizing fragments of identical sizes in their chromosomes. Dot-blot hybridization of serial dilutions of the total DNA of the three strains showed that the intensity of all the hybridizing bands was much higher in strains AS-P-78 and P2 than in Wis 54-1255. Hybridization of total DNA digestions with probes corresponding to fragments which mapped upstream or downstream of the pcbC-penDE region revealed that a fragment of at least 35 kb DNA has been amplified 9 to 14 fold in the high penicillin producing strains. The amplified region did not include the previously cloned pyrG gene that encodes OMP-decarboxylase, an enzyme involved in pyrimidine biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Barredo
- Area de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de León, Spain
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Palissa H, von Döhren H, Kleinkauf H, Ting HH, Baldwin JE. Beta-lactam biosynthesis in a gram-negative eubacterium: purification and characterization of isopenicillin N synthase from Flavobacterium sp. strain SC 12.154. J Bacteriol 1989; 171:5720-8. [PMID: 2793834 PMCID: PMC210420 DOI: 10.1128/jb.171.10.5720-5728.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The occurrence, localization, and extraction of isopenicillin N-synthase (IPNS) were investigated in the gram-negative low-level beta-lactam producer Flavobacterium sp. strain SC 12.154, which forms deacetoxycephalosporin and excretes the cephabacin 7-formamidocephalosporin. IPNS was detected with anti-IPNS antibodies raised against the Cephalosporium acremonium enzyme. The flavobacterium enzyme, whose molecular mass (38 kilodaltons) and cofactor requirements resemble those of the fungal and Streptomyces enzymes, is formed at the transition from growth to the stationary phase. It was extracted into the polyethylene glycol phase of a polyethylene glycol-Ficoll-dextran three-phase system and was purified by quaternary aminoethyl ion-exchange chromatography, gel filtration, covalent chromatography on cystamine-Sepharose, and fast-protein liquid chromatography on Mono Q. The enzyme was characterized with respect to sulfhydryl requirement, inhibition by disulfides and metal ions, pH and temperature dependence, and stimulation by polyethylene glycol and low Triton X-100 concentrations, as well as by several amino acids, including alpha-aminoadipic acid and cysteine. The Km for alpha-aminoadipyl-cysteinyl-D-valine was 0.08 mM. An inactive membrane-associated form of IPNS was detected together with a beta-lactamase active on isopenicillin N. The system has been suggested as a model for the study of endogenous functions of beta-lactams in bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Palissa
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekulare Biologie, Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany
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Barredo JL, Cantoral JM, Alvarez E, Díez B, Martín JF. Cloning, sequence analysis and transcriptional study of the isopenicillin N synthase of Penicillium chrysogenum AS-P-78. MOLECULAR & GENERAL GENETICS : MGG 1989; 216:91-8. [PMID: 2499766 DOI: 10.1007/bf00332235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A gene (ips) encoding the isopenicillin N synthase of Penicillium chrysogenum AS-P-78 was cloned in a 3.9 kb SalI fragment using a probe corresponding to the amino-terminal end of the enzyme. The SalI fragment was trimmed down to a 1.3 kb NcoI-BglII fragment that contained an open reading frame of 996 nucleotides encoding a polypeptide of 331 amino acids with an Mr of 38012 dalton. The predicted polypeptide encoded by the ips gene of strain AS-P-78 contains a tyrosine at position 195, whereas the gene of the high penicillin producing strain 23X-80-269-37-2 shows an isoleucine at the same position. The ips gene is expressed in Escherichia coli minicells using the lambda phage PL promoter. Some similar sequence motifs were found in the upstream region of the ips gene of P. chrysogenum when compared with the upstream sequences of the ips genes of Cephalosporium acremonium and Aspergillus nidulans. Primer extension studies indicated that the start of the mRNA coincides with a T in position -11 which is located in a conserved pyrimidine-rich sequence, near two CAAG boxes. Clones of P. chrysogenum Wis 54-1255 transformed with the ips gene showed a five-fold higher isopenicillin N synthase activity than the untransformed cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Barredo
- Area de Microbiología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de León, Spain
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Abstract
In the field of natural peptides, beta-lactams, and related compounds, recent exciting developments are discussed. The increasing interest in this class of bioactive amino-acid derived structures has been attributed to the use of new directed screens (enzyme inhibition assays, beta-lactam detection, immunomodulator studies), new and improved applications (antibiotic, transplantation, and cancer chemotherapy), and advances in functional studies (DNA binding peptides, nucleotide complexones, cell wall and protein processing inhibitors). Peptides offer unique access to modifications and analog production by in vivo (directed biosynthesis) and in vitro procedures (enzymatic synthesis) due to their general linear precursors permitting point replacements. Of special interest are recent developments in the genetics of these compounds (cyclic peptides and beta-lactams), which will find applications in production methods in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Kleinkauf
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Technical University of Berlin, West Germany
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Selection and characterization of pyrG mutants of Penicillium chrysogenum lacking orotidine-5?-phosphate decarboxylase and complementation by the pyr4 gene of Neurospora crassaa. Curr Genet 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00435290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Luengo JM, Moreno MA. Separation by high-performance liquid chromatography of penicillins with C4 to C10 aliphatic side chains. Anal Biochem 1987; 164:559-62. [PMID: 3674401 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(87)90533-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
A suitable and rapid method for the simultaneous determination of different aliphatic penicillins is described. Butyryl-, pentanoyl-, hexanoyl-, heptanoyl-, octanoyl-, nonanoyl- and decanoylpenicillin can be completely separated by high-performance liquid chromatography using an isocratic elution mode (50 mM H2KPO4, pH 5.0:methanol, 45:55 v/v). Under these conditions, retention times for C4 to C10 aliphatic side-chain penicillins were 2.5, 2.8, 4.1, 5.8, 8.9, 15.3, and 28.2 min. The benzylpenicillin retention time was 3.3 min.
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Garcia-Dominguez M, Martin JF, Mahro B, Demain AL, Liras P. Efficient plasmid transformation of the beta-lactam producer Streptomyces clavuligerus. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987; 53:1376-81. [PMID: 3606113 PMCID: PMC203873 DOI: 10.1128/aem.53.6.1376-1381.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The conditions for optimal formation and regeneration of protoplasts of Streptomyces clavuligerus were established. The optimal temperature for regeneration of protoplasts and for transformation was 26 degrees C in three different regeneration media. The best efficiency of transformation was obtained with 40% polyethylene glycol 1000. The efficiencies of regeneration and transformation increased greatly when protoplasts were obtained from cultures in the early stationary phase of growth. The number of transformants per assay increased linearly with rising concentrations of protoplasts. However, the number of transformants per protoplast decreased at concentrations of protoplasts above 1.5 X 10(9). The total number of transformants rose linearly at increasing plasmid DNA concentrations, but the number of the transformants per microgram of DNA became constant at concentrations above 1 microgram of DNA. Transformation frequencies as high as 5 X 10(5) transformants per microgram of DNA were obtained when plasmid pIJ702 was isolated from S. clavuligerus but not when isolated from Streptomyces lividans.
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Cantoral JM, Díez B, Barredo JL, Alvarez E, Martín JF. High–Frequency Transformation of Penicillium Chrysogenum. Nat Biotechnol 1987. [DOI: 10.1038/nbt0587-494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Ramos F, López-Nieto M, MartÃn J. Coordinate increase of isopenicillin N synthetase, isopenicillin N epimerase and deacetoxycephalosporin C synthetase in a high cephalosporin-producing mutant ofAcremonium chrysogenumand simultaneous loss of the three enzymes in a non-producing mutant. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1986. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1986.tb01513.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Castro J, Liras P, Cortés J, MartÃn JF. Conversion of phenylacetyl-cysteinyl-valine in vitro into penicillin G by isopenicillin N synthase ofStreptomyces lactamdurans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1986. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1986.tb01435.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Direct Enzymatic Synthesis of Penicillin G Using Cyclases of Penicillium chrysogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum. Nat Biotechnol 1986. [DOI: 10.1038/nbt0186-44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Chapter 13. β-Lactam Antibiotics. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-7743(08)61123-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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L�pez-Nieto MJ, Ramos FR, Luengo JM, Mart�n JF. Characterization of the biosynthesis in vivo of ?-aminoadipyl-cysteinyl-valine inPenicillium chrysogenum. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1985. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00582418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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