Rat alpha 1 macroglobulin inhibits hemagglutination by influenza C virus

Host Range, Biology, and Species Specificity of Seven-Segmented Influenza Viruses-A Comparative Review on Influenza C and D

Other than genome structure, influenza C (ICV), and D (IDV) viruses with seven-segmented genomes are biologically different from the eight-segmented influenza A (IAV), and B (IBV) viruses concerning the presence of hemagglutinin-esterase fusion protein, which combines the function of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase responsible for receptor-binding, fusion, and receptor-destroying enzymatic activities, respectively. Whereas ICV with humans as primary hosts emerged nearly 74 years ago, IDV, a distant relative of ICV, was isolated in 2011, with bovines as the primary host. Despite its initial emergence in swine, IDV has turned out to be a transboundary bovine pathogen and a broader host range, similar to influenza A viruses (IAV). The receptor specificities of ICV and IDV determine the host range and the species specificity. The recent findings of the presence of the IDV genome in the human respiratory sample, and high traffic human environments indicate its public health significance. Conversely, the presence of ICV in pigs and cattle also raises the possibility of gene segment interactions/virus reassortment between ICV and IDV where these viruses co-exist. This review is a holistic approach to discuss the ecology of seven-segmented influenza viruses by focusing on what is known so far on the host range, seroepidemiology, biology, receptor, phylodynamics, species specificity, and cross-species transmission of the ICV and IDV.

Pregnancy zone protein is a carrier and modulator of placental protein-14 in T-cell growth and cytokine production

A successful pregnancy can only occur when the maternal immune system fails to attack the allogeneic fetus. Two plasma proteins with described immunoregulatory activities, pregnancy zone protein (PZP) and placental protein-14 (PP14; also known as glycodelin-A), increase dramatically during pregnancy, prompting us to examine their potential role in mediating fetal protection. First, we demonstrated that both native PZP and its receptor-recognized monoamine-activated form (MA-PZP) bound non-covalently and specifically to PP14, exhibiting K(d) values greater than 3 microM, as determined by surface plasmon resonance. Our evidence further suggests that PZP is potentially a more effective carrier of PP14 than its relative alpha2-macroglobulin. Second, we found that T-cell activation, as measured by increased proliferation and IL-2 production, was inhibited by either PZP or PP14 in a dose-dependent manner. However, when PZP and PP14 were combined, they acted synergistically to inhibit T cell proliferation and IL-2 production. Interestingly, the combination of PZP and PP14 had little effect on the production of T(H)2 cytokine, IL-4. Based upon these findings, we hypothesize that PZP and PP14 form a stable complex in the plasma of pregnant women and together act synergistically to selectively modulate T-cell activation. Mechanistically, this activity appears to be independent of the PZP receptor (CD91) or PZP's anti-proteinase activity.

Identification of a coronavirus hemagglutinin-esterase with a substrate specificity different from those of influenza C virus and bovine coronavirus

We have characterized the hemagglutinin-esterase (HE) of puffinosis virus (PV), a coronavirus closely related to mouse hepatitis virus (MHV). Analysis of the cloned gene revealed approximately 85% sequence identity to HE proteins of MHV and approximately 60% identity to the corresponding esterase of bovine coronavirus. The HE protein exhibited acetylesterase activity with synthetic substrates p-nitrophenyl acetate, alpha-naphthyl acetate, and 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate. In contrast to other viral esterases, no activity was detectable with natural substrates containing 9-O-acetylated sialic acids. Furthermore, PV esterase was unable to remove influenza C virus receptors from human erythrocytes, indicating a substrate specificity different from HEs of influenza C virus and bovine coronavirus. Solid-phase binding assays revealed that purified PV was unable to bind to sialic acid-containing glycoconjugates like bovine submaxillary mucin, mouse alpha1 macroglobulin or bovine brain extract. Because of the close relationship to MHV, possible implications on the substrate specificity of MHV esterases are suggested.

A single point mutation of the influenza C virus glycoprotein (HEF) changes the viral receptor-binding activity

From strain JHB/1/66 of influenza C virus a mutant was derived with a change in the cell tropism. The mutant was able to grow in a subline of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (MDCK II) which is resistant to infection by the parent virus due to a lack of receptors. Inactivation of cellular receptors by either neuraminidase or acetylesterase and generation of receptors by resialylation of cells with N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5,9Ac2) indicated that 9-O-acetylated sialic acid is a receptor determinant for both parent and mutant virus. However, the mutant required less Neu5,9Ac2 on the cell surface for virus attachment than the parent virus. The increased binding efficiency enabled the mutant to infect cells with a low content of 9-O-acetylated sialic acid which were resistant to the parent virus. By comparing the nucleotide sequences of the glycoprotein (HEF) genes of the parent and the mutant virus only a single point mutation could be identified on the mutant gene. This mutation at nucleotide position 872 causes an amino acid exchange from threonine to isoleucine at position 284 on the amino acid sequence. Sequence similarity with a stretch of amino acids involved in the receptor-binding pocket of the influenza A hemagglutinin suggests that the mutation site on the influenza C glycoprotein (HEF) is part of the receptor-binding site.

The S protein of bovine coronavirus is a hemagglutinin recognizing 9-O-acetylated sialic acid as a receptor determinant

The S protein of bovine coronavirus (BCV) has been isolated from the viral membrane and purified by gradient centrifugation. Purified S protein was identified as a viral hemagglutinin. Inactivation of the cellular receptors by sialate 9-O-acetylesterase and generation of receptors by sialylation of erythrocytes with N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5,9Ac2) indicate that S protein recognizes 9-O-acetylated sialic acid as a receptor determinant as has been shown previously for intact virions. The second glycoprotein of BCV, HE, which has been thought previously to be responsible for the hemagglutinating activity of BCV, is a less efficient hemagglutinin; it agglutinates mouse and rat erythrocytes, but in contrast to S protein, it is unable to agglutinate chicken erythrocytes, which contain a lower level of Neu5,9Ac2 on their surface. S protein is proposed to be responsible for the primary attachment of virus to cell surface. S protein is proposed to be responsible for the primary attachement of virus to cell surface receptors. The potential of S protein as a probe for the detection of Neu5,9Ac2-containing glycoconjugates is demonstrated.

Structure and function of the HEF glycoprotein of influenza C virus

Soon after the first isolation of an influenza C virus from a patient, it became obvious that this virus differs from other myxoviruses in several aspects. Pronounced differences have been observed in the interactions between the virus and cell surfaces, suggesting that influenza C virus attaches to the receptors different from those recognized by other myxoviruses. While influenza A and B viruses agglutinate erythrocytes from many species, including humans, the spectrum of erythrocytes agglutinated by influenza C virus is much more restricted. Erythrocytes from rats, mice, and adult chickens are suitable for hemagglutination and hemadsorption tests; cells from other species, however, react not at all or only poorly with influenza C virus. Differences are also observed so far as hemagglutination inhibitors are concerned. A variety of glycoproteins have been shown to prevent influenza A and B viruses from agglutinating erythrocytes. In the case of influenza C virus, rat serum was for a long time the only known hemagglutination inhibitor. A difference in the receptors for influenza C virus and other myxo-viruses was also suggested by studies on the receptor-destroying enzyme. The ability of influenza C virus to inactivate its own receptors was reported soon after the first isolation of this virus from a patient. However, the influenza C enzyme did not affect the receptors of other myxoviruses and, conversely, the receptor-destroying enzyme of either of the latter viruses was unable to inactivate the receptors for influenza C virus on erythrocytes. While the enzyme of influenza A and B virus was characterized as a neuraminidase in the 1950s, even with refined methodology no such activity was detectable with influenza C virus. It is now known that both the receptor-binding and receptor-destroying activities, as well as the fusion activity of influenza C virus are mediated by the only glycoprotein present on the surface of the virus particle. The structure and functions of this protein, which is designated as HEF, are reviewed in this chapter.

Isolated HE-protein from hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus and bovine coronavirus has receptor-destroying and receptor-binding activity

Bovine coronavirus (BCV) and hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (HEV) from swine were found to grow to high titers in MDCK I cells, a subline of Madin Darby canine kidney cells. Virus grown in these cells was used to isolate and purify the HE-protein. This protein has been shown recently to have acetylesterase activity and to function as the receptor-destroying enzyme of BCV. Here we show that HEV contains this enzyme, too. The glycoproteins were solubilized by treatment of virions with octylglucoside. Following centrifugation through a sucrose gradient the surface proteins S and HE (hemagglutinin-esterase) were obtained in purified form. After removal of the detergent by dialysis, HE formed rosettes as shown by electron microscopy. The purified HE protein retained acetylesterase activity and was able to function as a receptor-destroying enzyme rendering red blood cells resistant against agglutination by both coronaviruses. HE protein released from the viral membrane failed to agglutinate red blood cells. However, it was found to recognize glycoconjugates containing N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid as indicated by a binding assay with rat serum proteins blotted to nitrocellulose and by its ability to inhibit the hemagglutinating activity of BCV, HEV, and influenza C virus. The purified enzyme provides a useful tool for analyzing the cellular receptors for coronaviruses.

Hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus attaches to N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid-containing receptors on erythrocytes: comparison with bovine coronavirus and influenza C virus

The receptors for the hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (HEV, a porcine coronavirus) on chicken erythrocytes were analyzed and compared to the receptors for bovine coronavirus (BCV) and influenza C virus. Evidence was obtained that HEV requires the presence of N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5,9Ac2) on the cell surface for agglutination of erythrocytes as has been previously shown for BCV and influenza C virus: (i) Incubation of red blood cells with sialate 9-O-acetylesterase, the receptor-destroying enzyme of influenza C virus, rendered the erythrocytes resistant against agglutination by each of the three viruses; (ii) Human erythrocytes which are resistant to agglutination by HEV acquire receptors for HEV after resialylation with Neu5,9Ac2. Sialylation of red blood cells with limiting amounts of sialic acid indicated that strain JHB/1/66 of influenza C virus requires less Neu5,9Ac2 for agglutination of erythrocytes than the two coronaviruses, both of which were found to be similar in their reactivity with Neu5,9Ac2-containing receptors.

Quantification of free alpha 2-macroglobulin and alpha 2-macroglobulin-protease complexes by a novel ELISA system based on streptococcal alpha 2-macroglobulin receptors

An ELISA test system has been developed for the quantification of the two distinct forms of the proteinase inhibitor alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M): (i) free alpha 2M (functionally active), which is the electrophoretically slow form (alpha 2 MS), and (ii) the alpha 2 M-proteinase complex (functionally inactive), which is the electrophoretically fast form of alpha 2 M (alpha 2 MF). Discrimination between the two types of alpha 2 M was achieved using extracts of the two independent streptococcal strains, M1 and Sc1, which express receptors for alpha 2 MS and alpha 2 MF, respectively, in combination with a monoclonal antibody specific for alpha 2 M. The assay system described is easy and reliable and permits quantitation of alpha 2 MS and alpha 2 MF in complex biological samples such as plasma and cutaneous suction blister fluid.

Serine 71 of the glycoprotein HEF is located at the active site of the acetylesterase of influenza C virus

The acetylesterase of influenza C virus has been reported recently to be inhibited by diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) [Muchmore EA, Varki A (1987) Science 236: 1293-1295]. As this inhibitor is known to bind covalently to the serine in the active site of serine esterases, we attempted to determine the serine in the active site of the influenza C acetylesterase. Incubation of purified influenza C virus with 3H-DFP resulted in the selective labelling of the influenza C glycoprotein HEF. The labelled glycoprotein was isolated from a SDS-polyacrylamide gel. Following reduction and carboxymethylation, tryptic peptides of HEF were prepared and analyzed by reversed phase HPLC. The peptide containing the 3H-DFP was subjected to sequence analysis. The amino acids determined from the NH2-terminus were used to locate the peptide on the HEF polypeptide. Radiosequencing revealed that 3H-DFP is attached to amino acid 17 of the tryptic peptide. These results indicate that serine 71 is the active-site serine of the acetylesterase of influenza C virus.

Acetylated galactosamine is a receptor for the influenza C virus glycoprotein

We have investigated the specificity of influenza C virus receptor destroying enzyme (RDE) by treatment of erythrocytes of various species with influenza C virus followed by examination of the agglutination patterns of the erythrocytes with a panel of 13 lectins and four anti-human blood group sera of known receptor specificity. Human and animal erythrocytes were agglutinated by lectins SBA, DBA, WFA, VAA II, RCA II, and WGA which have a specificity for the N-acetyl group of galactosamine (NAc-D-Gal) or glucosamine (NAc-D-Gal); this effect was abolished after treatment of erythrocytes with influenza C virus. On the other hand, lectins (RCA I, PNA, APA) with a specificity for D-Gal were able to agglutinate erythrocytes both before and after influenza C virus treatment. Thus, influenza C virus RDE is able to cleave an acetyl group at the 'N' position of galactosamine or glucosamine in addition to acetyl groups in the 'O' position of neuraminic acid and acetylated amino sugars such as galactosamine may act as receptors for the haemagglutinin of influenza C viruses in addition to acetylated neuraminic acid.

The influenza C virus glycoprotein (HE) exhibits receptor-binding (hemagglutinin) and receptor-destroying (esterase) activities

A cDNA copy of RNA segment 4 of influenza C/Cal/78 virus was cloned into an SV40 vector and expressed in CV-1 cells. The gene product expressed from the SV40 recombinant virus was immunoprecipitated by monoclonal antibodies directed against the influenza C virus glycoprotein. Cells infected with the recombinant virus also exhibited C virus-specific hemagglutinin and O-acetylesterase activity. This suggests that the same C virus protein is associated with receptor-binding as well as receptor-destroying activity. The latter viral activity was measured using as substrates bovine submaxillary mucin or a low molecular weight compound p-nitrophenylacetate. In analogy to the parainfluenza virus HN protein, the influenza C virus glycoprotein was termed HE, because it possesses hemagglutinin and esterase (receptor-destroying) activity.

Isolation and characterization of influenza C virus inhibitor in rat serum

Two hemagglutination inhibitors for influenza C virus were isolated from pooled sera of normal rats by sequential chromatography on Blue Sepharose CL 6B, Ultrogel AcA 22, and DEAE-cellulose. The two inhibitors were identified as alpha 1-macroglobulin and murinoglobulin by comparison with the authentic samples. These inhibitors abolished the hemagglutination by influenza C virus strains but did not affect the hemagglutination by influenza A and B virus strains. Hemagglutination inhibition activity of both inhibitors was completely destroyed by incubation with influenza C virus at 37 degrees C but not with the other types of influenza virus, indicating that the inhibitors are specific for influenza C virus. The inhibitory activity was also destroyed by incubation with neuraminidase from Arthrobacter ureafaciens. By contrast, no activity was lost after treatment with neuraminidase from Vibrio cholerae. These results suggest that the sialic acid residue(s) which is cleavable by the former neuraminidase but not by the latter is essential for the hemagglutination inhibition. The two inhibitors were inactivated by treating with sodium hydroxide and methylamine but not with sodium metaperiodate.

An assay for the receptor-destroying activity of influenza C virus

We have developed a convenient method for assaying the receptor-destroying enzyme (RDE) activity of influenza C virus. This method measures the ability of the RDE to destroy the hemagglutination-inhibition activity of a potent inhibitor present in rat serum. Some physico-chemical properties of the RDE of influenza C virus were investigated by using this method. The temperature optimum for maximal activity of this enzyme was found to be 45 C to 53 C. There was little difference in thermostability between the RDE and hemagglutinating activities of influenza C virus. When influenza C virions were treated with various concentrations of trypsin, the RDE activity decreased in parallel with the decrease in the amount of residual gp88 glycoprotein, suggesting association of RDE with this glycoprotein.