The control of intracellular signal molecules at the level of their hydrolysis: the example of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 5-phosphatase

IP3-independent signalling of OX1 orexin/hypocretin receptors to Ca2+ influx and ERK

OX1 orexin receptors (OX1R) have been shown to activate receptor-operated Ca2+ influx pathways as their primary signalling pathway; however, investigations are hampered by the fact that orexin receptors also couple to phospholipase C, and therewith inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)-dependent Ca2+ release. We have here devised a method to block the latter signalling in order to focus on the mechanism of Ca2+ influx activation by OX1R in recombinant systems. Transient expression of the IP3-metabolising enzymes IP3-3-kinase-A (inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate-->inositol-1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate) and type I IP3-5-phosphatase (inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate-->inositol-1,4-bisphosphate) almost completely attenuated the OX1R-stimulated IP3 elevation and Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. Upon attenuation of the IP3-dependent signalling, the receptor-operated Ca2+ influx pathway became the only source for Ca2+ elevation, enabling mechanistic studies on the receptor-channel coupling. Attenuation of the IP3 elevation did not affect the OX1R-mediated ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) activation in CHO cells, which supports our previous finding of the major importance of receptor-operated Ca2+ influx for this response.

Pharmacological modulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum function in smooth muscle

The sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (SR/ER) is the primary storage and release site of intracellular calcium (Ca2+) in many excitable cells. The SR is a tubular network, which in smooth muscle (SM) cells distributes close to cellular periphery (superficial SR) and in deeper aspects of the cell (deep SR). Recent attention has focused on the regulation of cell function by the superficial SR, which can act as a buffer and also as a regulator of membrane channels and transporters. Ca2+ is released from the SR via two types of ionic channels [ryanodine- and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated], whereas accumulation from thecytoplasm occurs exclusively by an energy-dependent sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase pump (SERCA). Within the SR, Ca2+ is bound to various storage proteins. Emerging evidence also suggests that the perinuclear portion of the SR may play an important role in nuclear transcription. In this review, we detail the pharmacology of agents that alter the functions of Ca2+ release channels and of SERCA. We describe their use and selectivity and indicate the concentrations used in investigating various SM preparations. Important aspects of cell regulation and excitation-contractile activity coupling in SM have been uncovered through the use of such activators and inhibitors of processes that determine SR function. Likewise, they were instrumental in the recent finding of an interaction of the SR with other cellular organelles such as mitochondria. Thus, an appreciation of the pharmacology and selectivity of agents that interfere with SR function in SM has greatly assisted in unveiling the multifaceted nature of the SR.

Metabotropic receptor activation, desensitization and sequestration-I: modelling calcium and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate dynamics following receptor activation

A mathematical account is given of the processes governing the time courses of calcium ions (Ca2+), inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) in single cells following the application of external agonist to metabotropic receptors. A model is constructed that incorporates the regulation of metabotropic receptor activity, the G-protein cascade and the Ca2+ dynamics in the cytosol. It is subsequently used to reproduce observations on the extent of desensitization and sequestration of the P(2)Y(2) receptor following its activation by uridine triphosphate (UTP). The theory predicts the dependence on agonist concentration of the change in the number of receptors in the membrane as well as the time course of disappearance of receptors from the plasmalemma, upon exposure to agonist. In addition, the extent of activation and desensitization of the receptor, using the calcium transients in cells initiated by exposure to agonist, is also predicted. Model predictions show the significance of membrane PIP(2) depletion and resupply on the time course of IP(3) and Ca2+ levels. Results of the modelling also reveal the importance of receptor recycling and PIP(2) resupply for maintaining Ca2+ and IP(3) levels during sustained application of agonist.

Ca2+ oscillations in hepatocytes do not require the modulation of InsP3 3-kinase activity by Ca2+

Receptor-mediated production of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP(3)) initiates Ca(2+) release and is responsible for cytosolic Ca(2+) oscillations. InsP(3) oscillations have also been observed in some cells. One of the enzymes controlling InsP(3) catabolism, the InsP(3) 3-kinase, is stimulated by Ca(2+); this regulation is presumably part of the reason for InsP(3) oscillations that have been observed in some cells. Here, we investigate the possible role of Ca(2+)-activated InsP(3) catabolism on the characteristics of the InsP(3)-induced Ca(2+) oscillations. Numerical simulations show that if it is assumed that the Ca(2+)-independent InsP(3) catabolism is predominant, Ca(2+) oscillations remain qualitatively unchanged although the relative amplitude of the oscillations in InsP(3) concentrations becomes minimal. We tested this prediction in hepatocytes by masking the Ca(2+)-dependent InsP(3) catabolism by 3-kinase through the injection of massive amounts of InsP(3) 5-phosphatase, which is not stimulated by Ca(2+). We find that in such injected hepatocytes, Ca(2+) oscillations generated by modest agonist levels are suppressed, presumably because of the decreased dose in InsP(3), but that at higher doses of agonist, oscillations reappear, with characteristics similar to those of untreated cells at low agonist doses. Altogether, these results suggest that oscillations in InsP(3) concentration due to Ca(2+)-stimulated InsP(3) catabolism do not play a major role for the oscillations in Ca(2+) concentration.

Investigation of the roles of Ca2+ and InsP3 diffusion in the coordination of Ca2+ signals between connected hepatocytes

Glycogenolytic agonists induce coordinated Ca2+ oscillations in multicellular rat hepatocyte systems as well as in the intact liver. The coordination of intercellular Ca2+ signals requires functional gap-junction coupling. The mechanisms ensuring this coordination are not precisely known. We investigated possible roles of Ca2+ or inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) as a coordinating messengers for Ca2+ spiking among connected hepatocytes. Application of ionomycin or of supra-maximal concentrations of agonists show that Ca2+ does not significantly diffuse between connected hepatocytes, although gap junctions ensure the passage of small signaling molecules, as demonstrated by FRAP experiments. By contrast, coordination of Ca2+ spiking among connected hepatocytes can be favored by a rise in the level of InsP3, via the increase of agonist concentrations, or by a shift in the affinity of InsP3 receptor for InsP3. In the same line, coordination cannot be achieved if the InsP3 is rapidly metabolized by InsP3-phosphatase in one cell of the multiplet. These results demonstrate that even if small amounts of Ca2+ diffuse across gap junctions, they most probably do not play a significant role in inducing a coordinated Ca2+ signal among connected hepatocytes. By contrast, coordination of Ca2+ oscillations is fully dependent on the diffusion of InsP3 between neighboring cells.

Simulations of the effects of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase and 5-phosphatase activities on Ca2+ oscillations

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins-1,4,5-P3) is responsible for Ca2+ mobilization in response to external stimulation in many cell types. The latter phenomenon often occurs as repetitive Ca2+ spikes. In this study, the effect of the two Ins-1,4,5-P3 metabolizing enzymes (Ins-1,4,5-P3 3-kinase and 5-phosphatase) on the temporal pattern of Ca2+ oscillations has been investigated. On the basis of the well-documented Ins-1,4,5-P3 3-kinase stimulation by the Ca2+/calmodulin complex and of the experimentally-determined kinetic characteristics of these enzymes, we predict that 5-phosphatase primarily controls the levels of Ins-1,4,5-P3 and, thereby, the occurrence and frequency of Ca2+ oscillations. Consequently, the model reproduces the experimental observation performed in Chinese hamster ovary cells that 5-phosphatase overexpression has a much more pronounced effect on the pattern of Ca2+ oscillations than 3-kinase overexpression. We also investigated, in more detail, under which conditions a similar effect could be observed in other cell types expressing various Ins-1,4,5-P3 3-kinase activities.

Ca2+ influx does more than provide releasable Ca2+ to maintain repetitive spiking in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

We investigated why oscillations of intracellular Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i) in endothelial cells challenged by sub-maximal histamine run down in Ca(2+)-free medium despite stores retaining most of their Ca2+. One explantation is that only a small subpopulation of the Ca2+ stores oscillate and are completely emptied of Ca2+. To investigate if influx refills an empty store subpopulation, we differentiated between cations entering the cell and those released from internal stores by using extracellular Sr2+ as a Ca2+ surrogate; we distinguished between [Sr2+]i and [Ca2+]i by using the larger effect of Sr2+ on fura 2 fluorescence at 360 nm (F360). Ca2+ was still available for release when oscillations had run down since oscillations promptly reappeared on addition of Sr2+o and these were predominantly of Ca2+ (indicated by F360 changes). Also, totally depleting Ca2+ stores inhibited Sr(2+)-induced oscillations, suggesting that Sr2+ entry leads to Ca2+ release. In contrast, Ba2+o was unable to stimulate oscillations. Finally, oscillations generated by photolytic release of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) analogues were similarly sensitive to extracellular Ca2+ and Sr2+. We conclude that stores (or a sub-population) are not completely depleted of Ca2+ when oscillations run down in Ca(2+)-free medium. Bivalent cation entry therefore maintains sensitivity to IP3, possibly by maintaining luminal bivalent cation levels.

A novel, phospholipase C-independent pathway of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate formation in Dictyostelium and rat liver

In an earlier study a mutant Dictyostelium cell-line (plc-) was constructed in which all phospholipase C activity was disrupted and nonfunctional, yet these cells had nearly normal Ins(1,4,5)P3 levels (Drayer, A.L., Van Der Kaay, J., Mayr, G.W, Van Haastert, P.J.M. (1990) EMBO J. 13, 1601-1609). We have now investigated if these cells have a phospholipase C-independent de novo pathway of Ins(1,4,5)P3 synthesis. We found that homogenates of plc- cells produce Ins(1,4,5)P3 from endogenous precursors. The enzyme activities that performed these reactions were located in the particulate cell fraction, whereas the endogenous substrate was soluble and could be degraded by phytase. We tested various potential inositol polyphosphate precursors and found that the most efficient were Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5, Ins(1,3,4,5)P4, and Ins(1,4,5,6)P4. The utilization of Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5, which can be formed independently of phospholipase C by direct phosphorylation of inositol (Stephens, L.R. and Irvine, R.F. (1990) Nature 346, 580-582), provides Dictyostelium with an alternative and novel pathway of de novo Ins(1,4,5)P3 synthesis. We further discovered that Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 was converted to Ins(1,4,5)P3 via both Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 and Ins(1,4,5,6)P4. In the absence of calcium no Ins(1,4,5)P3 formation could be observed; half-maximal activity was observed at low micromolar calcium concentrations. These reaction steps could also be performed by a single enzyme purified from rat liver, namely, the multiple inositol polyphosphate phosphatase. These data indicate that organisms as diverse as rat and Dictyostelium possess enzyme activities capable of synthesizing the second messengers Ins(1,4,5)P3 and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 via a novel phospholipase C-independent pathway.

Tissue distribution and intracellular localisation of the 75-kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase

The 75-kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (75-kDa 5-phosphatase) hydrolyses several important mediators of intracellular calcium homeostasis, including inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P3], inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P4] and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2]. Northern analysis of various human tissues revealed the 75-kDa 5-phosphatase has a ubiquitous expression, where differential splicing may occur in specific tissues. Prominent expression of a 4.4-kb transcript was noted in human lung, thymus, testes and placenta, and a 4.6-kb transcript was observed in heart, brain, kidney, ovary and colon. Determination of the intracellular location of the enzyme by indirect immunofluorescence, demonstrated that the 75-kDa 5-phosphatase was associated with mitochondrial and cytosolic cellular compartments. Immunoprecipitation of the total cell homogenate of human lung carcinoma cells (A549) with anti-(recombinant 75-kDa 5-phosphatase) antibodies revealed that the 75-kDa 5-phosphatase is the major PtdIns(4,5)P2 5-phosphatase in this cell line. Analysis of PtdIns(4,5)P2 5-phosphatase activity in subcellular fractions of A549 cells revealed peak 75-kDa 5-phosphatase enzyme activity in the cytosolic and mitochondrial enriched fractions. Immunoblot analysis further confirmed the mitochondrial location of the enzyme. This study demonstrates the tissue distribution and intracellular location of the 75-kDa 5-phosphatase and reveals a novel location for an enzyme involved in phosphatidylinositol turnover.

Role of protein kinase C in the regulation of inositol phosphate production and Ca2+ mobilization evoked by ATP and acetylcholine in rat lacrimal acini

Stimulation of rat lacrimal acinar cells with ATP and acetylcholine (ACh) induced a rapid accumulation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P3] and its degradation products, resulting in an initial release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. However, after pretreating the acini with U73122 no increase in the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) or Ins(1,4,5)P3 production was observed. A short pretreatment with the phorbol ester 4-beta-phorbol-12-beta-myristate-13-alpha-acetate (PMA) significantly attenuated the ATP- and ACh-induced increase in [Ca2+]i and overall inositol phosphate production. In contrast, staurosporine enhanced Ins(1,4,5)P3 and inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4)P3] production and [Ca2+]i above control values in ATP- and ACh-stimulated cells. Stimulation of phospholipase C by ionomycin-evoked changes in [Ca2+]i were unaltered by pretreatment with staurosporine and PMA. The data show that a change in protein kinase C activity during cell stimulation affects the inositol phosphate metabolism and thereby the cellular Ca2+ signalling processes in lacrimal acinar cells.

Overexpression of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase in Xenopus oocytes inhibits agonist-evoked capacitative calcium entry

Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase is a key enzyme in the regulation of Ins(1,4,5)P3. Overexpression of Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase inhibited agonist-evoked and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4-evoked Ca2+ entry in Xenopus oocytes, but did not inhibit Ca2+ entry evoked by thapsigargin or non-metabolizable Ins(1,4,5)P3 analogues. The data suggest that Ins(1,4,5)P3 alone plays the crucial role in the activation of capacitative Ca2+ entry by emptying intracellular stores.

Phosphorylation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate analogues by 3-kinase and dephosphorylation of inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate analogues by 5-phosphatase

A series of 32P-labeled D-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P4] analogues was enzymically prepared from the corresponding D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate [Ins(1,4,5)P3] analogues using recombinant rat brain Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase and [gamma-32P]ATP. Ins(1,4,5)P3 analogues with bulky groups at the 2-OH position, substitutions of phosphates by thiophosphates and D-6-deoxy-myo-Ins(1,4,5)P3 were tested. Using [3H]Ins(1,4,5)P3 and ATP gamma S, a [3H]Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 analogue with a thiophosphate at the D-3 position was prepared. The D-4 and/or D-5 phosphate group seemed to be important for 3-kinase activity, while the OH group at position 6 was not crucial. The addition of bulky groups at the 2-OH position did not prevent phosphorylation. The labeled Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 analogues were purified and their degradation by type-I Ins(1,4,5)P3/Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 5-phosphatase was compared with the degradation of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4. Substitution of the phosphate group at positions 1 or 3 by a thiophosphate, or the addition of bulky groups at the 2-OH position did not prevent degradation. D-6-Deoxy-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate could not be degraded by the 5-phosphatase, indicating the importance of the 6-OH group for 5-phosphatase action. D-6-Deoxy-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate could be an important tool in elucidating the cellular functions of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4.