Tumor promoters stimulate the formation of 1,2-diacylglycerol in murine peritoneal macrophages: a possible mechanism for stimulating superoxide anion radical production

Plant polyphenols inhibit benzoyl peroxide-induced superoxide anion radical production and diacylglyceride formation in murine peritoneal macrophages

Naturally occurring plant polyphenols, which include ellagic acid (EA), tannic acid (TA), caffeic acid (CA), and ferulic acid (FA), were tested for their superoxide anion radical (SOR)-scavenging activities. SOR were produced by interaction of the tumor promoter benzoyl peroxide (BPO) with murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro. The levels of SOR were assessed microscopically by counting the number of formazan-positive cells per 250 cells produced by the reduction of nitro blue tetrazolium. BPO at a concentration of 15 micrograms/1.85 x 10(6) cells/0.5 ml induced maximum formation of SOR in resident and thioglycollate-elicited cells. All the tested polyphenols were able to inhibit the formation of SOR induced by the tumor promoter to a variable degree. Inhibition of BPO-induced SOR formation by polyphenols was in the following order: FA > TA > CA > EA. BPO stimulated the accumulation of diacylglycerol (DAG) in resident and elicited macrophages with concurrent release of choline equivalents from macrophages. Polyphenols inhibited DAG accumulation, which paralleled the inhibition of choline equivalent release. FA was observed to be the most effective and EA the least effective inhibitor of SOR formation, DAG accumulation, and release of choline equivalents. It is likely that inhibition of SOR formation might be due to some interference in the cellular lipid metabolism and phospholipid equivalent deacylation and choline release.

Lack of an absolute requirement for the native aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and AhR nuclear translocator transactivation domains in protein kinase C-mediated modulation of the AhR pathway

Protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated modulation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway was examined in CHOK1-derived L10.I cells stably transfected with the pGUDLUC6.1 reporter; pGUDLUC6.1 is solely controlled by four dioxin-responsive enhancer elements. Co treatment of L10.I cells with 10 nM 2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and 81 nM phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), an activator of sn-1,2-diacylglyerol binding PKCs, enhanced transactivation of the reporter construct several-fold relative to cells treated with a saturating 10 nM TCDD dose alone; this effect was dubbed the "PMA effect." A domain swapping and deletional analysis of the native AhR and AhR nuclear translocator (ARNT) protein transactivation domains (TADs) was performed to determine if these domains are absolutely required for the AhR x ARNT dimer-mediated PMA effect in the L10.I model system; controls demonstrate the suitability of the L10.I model for these analyses and that endogenous AhR and ARNT levels are extremely low in this model. Transient coexpression of the AhR and ARNT-474-FLAG, an ARNT protein lacking the native ARNT TAD, in L10.I cells reveals the native ARNT TAD is not absolutely required for the AhR x ARNT-474-FLAG dimer to mediate the PMA effect. Transient coexpression of AhRDeltaCVP, a chimeric AhR protein in which the native AhR TAD has been replaced with the VP16 (herpes simplex virus protein 16) TAD (which control experiments demonstrate is unaffected by PMA), and ARNT in L10.I cells indicates that the native AhR TAD is not absolutely required for this AhRDeltaCVP x ARNT dimer to mediate the PMA effect. These observations strongly suggest that PKC-mediated modulation of the AhR pathway is not absolutely dependent on coactivators recruited to the AhR. ARNT dimer by the native TADs of the AhR and its heterodimerization partner ARNT.

Protein kinase C modulates aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator protein-mediated transactivation potential in a dimer context

Protein kinase C (PKC)- and protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated modulation of the transactivation potential of human aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (hARNT), a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH)-PAS transcription factor, and the bHLH-ZIP transcription factors USF-1 (for upstream regulatory factor 1) and c-Myc were examined. An 81 nM dose of the PKC activator phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), shown here to specifically activate PKC in COS-1 cells, or a 1 nM dose of the PKA activator 8-bromoadenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-Br-cAMP) results in 2. 6- and 1.9-fold enhancements, respectively, in hARNT-mediated transactivation of the class B, E-box-driven reporter pMyc3E1bLuc relative to identically transfected, carrier solvent-treated COS-1 cells. In contrast, 81 nM PMA and 1 nM 8-Br-cAMP did not enhance transactivation of pMyc3E1bLuc-driven by USF-1 and c-Myc expression relative to identically transfected, carrier-treated COS-1 cells. Co-transfection of pcDNA3/ARNT-474-Flag, expressing a hARNT carboxyl-terminal transactivation domain deletion, and pMyc3E1bLuc does not result in induction of reporter activity, suggesting PMA's effects do not involve formation of unknown hARNT-protein heterodimers. Additionally, PMA had no effect on hARNT expression relative to Me2SO-treated cells. Metabolic 32P labeling of hARNT in cells treated with carrier solvent or 81 nM PMA demonstrates that PMA does not increase the overall phosphorylation level of hARNT. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that the transactivation potential of ARNT in a dimer context can be specifically modulated by PKC or PKA stimulation and that the bHLH-PAS and bHLH-ZIP transcription factors are differentially regulated by these pathways in COS-1 cells.

Polyphenols inhibit promotional phase of tumorigenesis: relevance of superoxide radicals

Ellagic acid (EA), tannic acid (TA), caffeic acid (CA), and ferulic acid (FA) offer considerable promise as anticarcinogens. The role of these dietary polyphenols was investigated in the promotional phase of carcinogenesis. Topical application of polyphenols simultaneously with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) or mezerein resulted in significant protection against 7,12-dimethyl-benz[a]anthracene-induced skin tumors in mice. Caffeic acid was the most effective inhibitor of tumor promotion. In vivo and in vitro treatment of murine peritoneal macrophages with the tumor promoters resulted in stimulation of superoxide anion radical formation. Tannic acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid were stronger inhibitors of PMA- and mezerein-induced superoxide anion radical than ellagic acid in in vivo and in vitro conditions. Treatment of [1(3)-14C]glycerol- or [methyl-14C]choline chloride-labeled resident or thioglycollate-elicited macrophages with PMA and mezerein led to accumulation of radioactive diacylglycerol equivalents. The polyphenols were capable of inhibiting these releases.

Cytotoxic action of cis-unsaturated fatty acids on human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells in vitro

The effect of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids (FAs) on the growth of human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells was studied. Of all the FAs tested, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) were found to be the most potent in their cytotoxic action on HeLa cells and the potency of various fatty acids with regard to their cytotoxic action was as follows: DHA > EPA > dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) = gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) > linoleic acid (LA) > arachidonic acid (AA) > alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). The cycloxygenase inhibitor indomethacin, the lipoxygenase inhibitor nordihydroguaretic acid (NDGA), the antioxidants vitamin E, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), the superoxide anion quencher superoxide dismutase (SOD), the hydroxyl and hydrogen peroxide quenchers mannitol and catalase, respectively, and the calmodulin antagonists trifluoperazine (TFP) and chlorpromazine (CPZ) could all block the cytotoxic action of GLA, which was used as a representative cytotoxic FA, on HeLa cells. On the other hand, copper and iron salts and buthionine sulfoxamine, a glutathione (GSH) depletor, potentiated the cytotoxic action of suboptimal doses of GLA. GLA-induced radical generation and lipid peroxidation in HeLa cells could be blocked by indomethacin, NDGA and calmodulin antagonists. The cytotoxic action of cis-unsaturated fatty acids (c-UFAs) is not dependent on the alteration in the protein kinase C levels since no alteration in the diacylglycerol levels was observed. Hydroxy and hydroperoxy products of GLA were found to be toxic to HeLa cells, whereas prostaglandin (PG)E1, PGF2 alpha, and prostacyclin stimulated cell growth. From these results, it is evident that radicals are the modulators of the cytotoxic action of c-UFAs, that their formation is a calmodulin-dependent process, and that lipoxygenase products may mediate the tumoricidal action of FAs.