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Gut Microbiota Metabolite Indole Propionic Acid Targets Tryptophan Biosynthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. mBio 2019; 10:mBio.02781-18. [PMID: 30914514 PMCID: PMC6437058 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02781-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
New drugs against tuberculosis are urgently needed. The tryptophan (Trp) analog indole propionic acid (IPA) is the first antitubercular metabolite produced by human gut bacteria. Here, we show that this antibiotic blocks Trp synthesis, an in vivo essential biosynthetic pathway in M. tuberculosis. Intriguingly, IPA acts by decoupling a bacterial feedback regulatory mechanism: it mimics Trp as allosteric inhibitor of anthranilate synthase, thereby switching off Trp synthesis regardless of intracellular Trp levels. The identification of IPA’s target paves the way for the discovery of more potent TrpE ligands employing rational, target-based lead optimization. Indole propionic acid (IPA), produced by the gut microbiota, is active against Mycobacterium tuberculosisin vitro and in vivo. However, its mechanism of action is unknown. IPA is the deamination product of tryptophan (Trp) and thus a close structural analog of this essential aromatic amino acid. De novo Trp biosynthesis in M. tuberculosis is regulated through feedback inhibition: Trp acts as an allosteric inhibitor of anthranilate synthase TrpE, which catalyzes the first committed step in the Trp biosynthesis pathway. Hence, we hypothesized that IPA may mimic Trp as an allosteric inhibitor of TrpE and exert its antimicrobial effect by blocking synthesis of Trp at the TrpE catalytic step. To test our hypothesis, we carried out metabolic, chemical rescue, genetic, and biochemical analyses. Treatment of mycobacteria with IPA inhibited growth and reduced the intracellular level of Trp, an effect abrogated upon supplementation of Trp in the medium. Missense mutations at the allosteric Trp binding site of TrpE eliminated Trp inhibition and caused IPA resistance. In conclusion, we have shown that IPA blocks Trp biosynthesis in M. tuberculosis via inhibition of TrpE by mimicking the physiological allosteric inhibitor of this enzyme.
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Huang T, Tohge T, Lytovchenko A, Fernie AR, Jander G. Pleiotropic physiological consequences of feedback-insensitive phenylalanine biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 63:823-35. [PMID: 20598094 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2010.04287.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A large proportion of plant carbon flow passes through the shikimate pathway to phenylalanine, which serves as a precursor for numerous secondary metabolites. To identify new regulatory mechanisms affecting phenylalanine metabolism, we isolated Arabidopsis thaliana mutants that are resistant to the phytotoxic amino acid m-tyrosine, a structural analog of phenylalanine. Map-based cloning identified adt2-1D, a dominant point mutation causing a predicted serine to alanine change in the regulatory domain of ADT2 (arogenate dehydratase 2). Relaxed feedback inhibition and increased expression of the mutant enzyme caused up to 160-fold higher accumulation of free phenylalanine in rosette leaves, as well as altered accumulation of several other primary and secondary metabolites. In particular, abundance of 2-phenylethylglucosinolate, which is normally almost undetectable in leaves of the A. thaliana Columbia-0 accession, is increased more than 30-fold. Other observed phenotypes of the adt2-1D mutant include abnormal leaf development, resistance to 5-methyltryptophan, reduced growth of the generalist lepidopteran herbivore Trichoplusia ni (cabbage looper) and increased salt tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengfang Huang
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Ishihara A, Hashimoto Y, Tanaka C, Dubouzet JG, Nakao T, Matsuda F, Nishioka T, Miyagawa H, Wakasa K. The tryptophan pathway is involved in the defense responses of rice against pathogenic infection via serotonin production. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 54:481-95. [PMID: 18266919 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2008.03441.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The upregulation of the tryptophan (Trp) pathway in rice leaves infected by Bipolaris oryzae was indicated by: (i) enhanced enzyme activity of anthranilate synthase (AS), which regulates metabolic flux in the Trp pathway; (ii) elevated levels of the AS (OASA2, OASB1, and OASB2) transcripts; and (iii) increases in the contents of anthranilate, indole, and Trp. The measurement of the contents of Trp-derived metabolites by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry revealed that serotonin and its hydroxycinnamic acid amides were accumulated in infected leaves. Serotonin accumulation was preceded by a transient increase in the tryptamine content and by marked activation of Trp decarboxylase, indicating that enhanced Trp production is linked to the formation of serotonin from Trp via tryptamine. Feeding of radiolabeled serotonin to inoculated leaves demonstrated that serotonin is incorporated into the cell walls of lesion tissue. The leaves of a propagating-type lesion mimic mutant (sl, Sekiguchi lesion) lacked both serotonin production and deposition of unextractable brown material at the infection sites, and showed increased susceptibility to B. oryzae infection. Treating the mutant with serotonin restored deposition of brown material at the lesion site. In addition, the serotonin treatment suppressed the growth of fungal hyphae in the leaf tissues of the sl mutant. These findings indicated that the activation of the Trp pathway is involved in the establishment of effective physical defenses by producing serotonin in rice leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Ishihara
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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Inaba Y, Zhong WQ, Zhang XH, Widholm JM. Specificity of expression of the GUS reporter gene (uidA) driven by the tobacco ASA2 promoter in soybean plants and tissue cultures. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 164:824-34. [PMID: 17223226 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2006.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2006] [Revised: 10/12/2006] [Accepted: 10/12/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Twelve independent lines were transformed by particle bombardment of soybean embryogenic suspension cultures with the tobacco anthranilate synthase (ASA2) promoter driving the uidA (beta-glucuronidase, GUS) reporter gene. ASA2 appears to be expressed in a tissue culture specific manner in tobacco (Song H-S, Brotherton JE, Gonzales RA, Widholm JM. Tissue culture specific expression of a naturally occurring tobacco feedback-insensitive anthranilate synthase. Plant Physiol 1998;117:533-43). The transgenic lines also contained the hygromycin phosphotransferase (hpt) gene and were selected using hygromycin. All the selected cultures or the embryos that were induced from these cultures expressed GUS measured histochemically. However, no histochemical GUS expression could be found in leaves, stems, roots, pods and root nodules of the plants formed from the embryos and their progeny. Pollen from some of the plants and immature and mature seeds and embryogenic cultures initiated from immature cotyledons did show GUS activity. Quantitative 4-methylumbelliferyl-glucuronide (MUG) assays of the GUS activity in various tissues showed that all with observable histochemical GUS activity contained easily measurable activities and leaves and stems that showed no observable histochemical GUS staining did contain very low but measurable MUG activity above that of the untransformed control but orders of magnitude lower than the constitutive 35S-uidA controls used. Low but clearly above background levels of boiling sensitive GUS activity could be observed in the untransformed control immature seeds and embryogenic cultures using the MUG assay. Thus in soybean the ASA2 promoter drives readily observable GUS expression in tissue cultures, pollen and seeds, with only extremely low levels seen in vegetative tissues of the plants. The ASA2 driven expression seen in mature seed was, however, much lower than that seen with the constitutive 35S promoter; less than 2% in seed coats and less than 0.13% in cotyledons and embryo axes. The predominate tissue culture specific expression pattern of the ASA2 promoter may be useful for genetic transformation of crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimi Inaba
- Department of Crop Sciences, Edward R. Madigan Laboratory, University of Illinois, 1201 W. Gregory Drive, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Zalkin H. Anthranilate synthetase. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 38:1-39. [PMID: 4275326 DOI: 10.1002/9780470122839.ch1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Zehr BE, Widholm JM. The effect of dipicolinic acid on maize tissue culture growth is not solely due to inhibition of lysine biosynthesis. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1988; 7:326-328. [PMID: 24241875 DOI: 10.1007/bf00269929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/1987] [Revised: 01/12/1988] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Dipicolinic acid, a known inhibitor of an enzyme (dihydrodipicolinic acid reductase) in the maize (Zea mays L.) lysine biosynthetic pathway, inhibits the growth of maize suspension and callus cultures. Inhibited cultures contain somewhat lower free lysine levels, but the inhibition of suspension culture growth was not reversible with simultaneous addition of L-lysine to the culture medium. It is concluded that dipicolinic acid does not act solely as an analog blocking lysine production. Dipicolinic acid thus appears to be unsuitable as a selection for maize tissue culture mutants with lysine overproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- B E Zehr
- Department of Agronomy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1102 South Goodwin Avenue, 61801, Urbana, IL, USA
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Schmauder HP, Döbel P, Gröger D. Charakterisierung von Nigella damascena-Zellkulturen in Airlift-Fermentoren. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0015-3796(84)80037-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Schaeffer GW, Sharpe FT. Lysine in seed protein fromS-aminoethyl-l-cysteine resistant anther-derived tissue cultures of rice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02618146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Comparison of Anthranilate Synthase Activity and lAA Content in Normal and Auxin-habituated Dioscorea deltoidea Tissue Cultures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0015-3796(81)80077-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Miflin BJ, Wallsgrove RM, Lea PJ. Glutamine metabolism in higher plants. CURRENT TOPICS IN CELLULAR REGULATION 1981; 20:1-43. [PMID: 6120060 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-152820-1.50005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Sung ZR. Relationship of indole-3-acetic acid and tryptophan concentrations in normal and 5-methyltryptophan-resistant cell lines of wild carrots. PLANTA 1979; 145:339-345. [PMID: 24317760 DOI: 10.1007/bf00388358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/1978] [Accepted: 12/14/1978] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A 5-methyltryptophan(5-MT)-resistant cell line of wild carrot (Daucus carota L.), W001, that exhibited auxin-independent callus growth, was found to accumulate indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and tryptophan (trp). Anthranilate-synthetase activity in W001 cell extract was less sensitive to feedback inhibition by trp than in the original 5-MT-sensitive cell lines. It is hypothesized that the resistant enzyme allowed more trp synthesis and accumulation which, in turn, affected the IAA concentration in the cell. Since carrot cultures cannot regenerate in the presence of exogenous auxin, the elevated IAA concentration in W001 may be responsible for its drastically reduced capacity to regenerate. The relationship between trp and IAA levels was further investigated by examining the effect of 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) on the endogenous concentration of trp and IAA. In general, the IAA level was reduced but the trp concentration was elevated when 2,4-D was present in the culture medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z R Sung
- Department of Genetics, University of California, 94720, Berkeley, CA, USA
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Chauhan YS, Rathore VS, Garg GK, Bhargava A. Detection of an indole oxidizing system in maize leaves. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1978; 83:1237-45. [PMID: 697856 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(78)91354-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Harran S, Dickinson DB. Metabolism of myo-Inositol and growth in various sugars of suspension-cultured tobacco cells. PLANTA 1978; 141:77-82. [PMID: 24414636 DOI: 10.1007/bf00387748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/1978] [Accepted: 02/23/1978] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) cells were cultured in a liquid medium which contained sucrose as a source of carbon and energy. Various cell-wall constituents and wall precursors (L-arabinose, D-xylose, D-galactose, D-mannose, D-glucuronate, myo-inositol) were added to cells growing in this medium to by-pass possible rate-limiting steps in the relevant metabolic pathways. None of these compounds stimulated growth as measured by increase in fresh weight; myo-inositol did cause a slight increase and L-arabinose a decrease in dry weight accumulation compared to controls grown on sucrose only. Although myo-inositol was not needed for rapid growth, tracer level amounts of [2-(3)H]myo-inositol were rapidly absorbed and metabolized. Label was incorporated into the uronide and pentose residues of cell walls and exocellular polysaccharide.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Harran
- Department of Botany, University of Illinois, 61801, Urbana, IL, USA
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Untersuchungen zur ammoniak-entgiftung und tryptophan-synthese in leukoplasten aus samen von Juglans regia L. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/s0044-328x(77)80113-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Wirkung von 5-Fluorindol und 5-Fluor-D,L-tryptophan auf Wachstum und Alkaloidsynthese in Claviceps. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1976. [DOI: 10.1016/s0015-3796(17)30203-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Singh M, Widholm JM. Study of a corn (Zea mays L.) mutant (blue fluorescent-1) which accumulates anthranilic acid and its beta-glucoside. Biochem Genet 1975; 13:357-67. [PMID: 1180876 DOI: 10.1007/bf00485821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A corn (Zea mays L.) mutant, blue fluorescent-1 (bf), is described that shows ultraviolet light induced blue fluorescence in young seedling leaves if homozygous for the mutant gene, and in anthers if either homozygous or heterozygous. The blue fluorescent compounds were extracted with acetone and separated by paper chromatography. Anthranilic acid was present and the beta-glucoside was also identified by paper chromatography and beta-glucosdase and acid treatment. A third major fluorescent compound was not identified, but it was convertible to anthranilic acid by acid treatment. Anthranilate synthetase from mutant plants was 3-40 times more active and was also more resistant to feedback inhibition by tryptophan than was the enzyme from normal plants. The high activity and feedback resistance would both lead to anthranilate accumulation. Anthranilate-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate phosphoribosyltransferase (PR transferase), the enzyme which usually utilizes anthranilate in the tryptophan pathway, was inhibited by the beta-glucoside of anthranilic acid in a noncompetitive manner and showed very little activity in the mutant plant extract. This inhibition of the enzyme which utilizes anthranilate would also lead to accumulation. Apparently the oversynthesis of anthranilate leads to the formation of the beta-glucoside, which inhibits anthranilate utilization. The fluorescent compounds are absent in seed, but form on germination. The levels decrease with age after 35 days postgermination, but are still present in leaves during grain filling.
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Crawford IP. Gene rearrangements in the evolution of the tryptophan synthetic pathway. BACTERIOLOGICAL REVIEWS 1975; 39:87-120. [PMID: 806280 PMCID: PMC413895 DOI: 10.1128/br.39.2.87-120.1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Bottino P. The potential of genetic manipulation in plant cell cultures for plant breeding. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1975. [DOI: 10.1016/s0033-7560(75)80009-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Bright SW, Northcote DH. A deficiency of hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase in a sycamore callus resistant to azaguanine. PLANTA 1975; 123:79-89. [PMID: 24436026 DOI: 10.1007/bf00388062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/1974] [Accepted: 11/21/1974] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) calluses resistant to azaguanine were isolated after mutagenesis with nitrosoguanidine. One callus SNC61 was highly variable in its growth on 10 μg/ml azaguanine and it was concluded that its resistance was not due to a stable alteration in the callus. Another callus SNE31 was isolated after 4.5 months culture in 0.5 or 1 μg/ml azaguanine which had a 10-fold increase in resistance to azaguanine. This was shown to be accompanied by a reduction to 50% of the normal level of hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (E.C.2.4.2.8).
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Affiliation(s)
- S W Bright
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, CB2 1 QW, Cambridge, UK
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Cultured carrot cell mutants: 5-methyltryptophan-resistance trait carried from cell to plant and back. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1974. [DOI: 10.1016/0304-4211(74)90003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Widholm JM. Measurement of the five enzymes which convert chorismate to tryptophan in cultured Daucus carota cell extracts. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1973. [PMID: 4750744 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1974.tb03129.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
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Widholm JM. Measurement of the five enzymes which convert chorismate to tryptophan in cultured Daucus carota cell extracts. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1973; 320:217-26. [PMID: 4750744 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(73)90301-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Widholm JM. Anthranilate synthetase from 5-methyltryptophan-susceptible and -resistant cultured Daucus carota cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1972; 279:48-57. [PMID: 4652566 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(72)90240-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Widholm JM. Cultured Nicotiana tabacum cells with an altered anthranilate synthetase which is less sensitive to feedback inhibition. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1972; 261:52-8. [PMID: 4536832 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(72)90312-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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