Effects of alcohol ingestion in the pregnant rat on daily food intake, offspring growth and metabolic parameters

Different effects on zinc redistribution if ethanol is consumed before or immediately after birth

AIMS

The effect of ethanol consumption, either during pregnancy and/or lactation, on the altered metabolism of zinc (Zn) is not well-defined. Therefore, this study was performed to analyse the effect of chronic ethanol exposure on Zn redistribution in dams and offspring during either gestation and/or lactation.

METHODS

We have used three groups of Wistar rat dams: control (CD), ethanol (ED), and pair-fed dams (PD). Some of the newborns were cross-fostered to dams at birth and we formed five experimental groups of offspring: control (CO); those exposed to ethanol during gestation only (GO); those exposed to ethanol during lactation only (LO); those exposed to ethanol during both periods (EO); and pair-fed groups (PO). Zn levels were measured by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

RESULTS

Zinc distribution is altered in ED with respect to CD, presenting significantly higher Zn values in the brain and spleen, and lower levels in the liver. However, total organs Zn levels are similar between dams. Ethanol-treated offspring (GO, LO, EO) consumed significantly less Zn than the CO. However, LO and EO showed significantly higher Zn serum levels. Zn distribution was altered in ethanol-treated offspring. GO and LO showed lower Zn levels in liver than CO; GO presents the lowest Zn liver levels. These levels were significantly lower than EO and PO. Ethanol-treated pups present significantly higher spleen and testes values than CO and PO. Total organ Zn levels were significantly lower in GO.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal adaptation resulted in organ Zn retention in order to meet the demands of pup's growth in the face of a lower diet intake. However, there was a redistribution of Zn in organ contents. Therefore, the ethanol route administration (via placenta and/or milk) affects Zn redistribution in pups in a different way.

Effects of maternal ethanol intake on immunoexpression of epidermal growth factor in developing rat mandibular molar

OBJECTIVE

A polyclonal antibody was used to investigate the effects of ethanol ingestion before and during pregnancy, in the expression of EGF on dentinogenesis and amelogenesis of rat mandibular first molar.

DESIGN

Ethanol was administered to drinking water (treated group) starting at concentrations of 1% and increasing weekly to 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% (v/v). During week 7, these rats were mated and continued to receive the 25% alcoholic solution, up to delivery. The control group received tap water. On postnatal days 0, 4 and 9, two offspring of each litter were killed, their hemimandibles removed and prepared for paraffin processing and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

At postnatal day 0 the EGF immunoreactivity of the inner enamel epithelium and presecretory ameloblasts was weak when compared to controls. At postnatal day 4 EGF immunoreactivity of the secretory ameloblasts and odontoblasts was only moderate compared to controls. At postnatal day 9 EGF staining of the ameloblasts was weak when compared to controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that, maternal alcoholism interferes with EGF expression during initial dentinogenesis and amelogenesis and in the secretion and maturation of the dentin and enamel, therefore, which may cause a reduction of dentin and enamel formation.

Prenatal ethanol exposure has differential effects on fetal growth and skeletal ossification

There is increasing evidence suggesting that the intrauterine environment may influence long-term bone health and the risk of developing osteoporosis in later life. Alcohol (ethanol) is one factor whose presence in the prenatal environment has long-term consequences for the offspring, including permanent growth retardation. Moreover, prenatal ethanol exposure retards both fetal and postnatal bone development. It is unknown if ethanol's effects on skeletal development result from generalized growth retardation or effects specific to skeletal development. Furthermore, the level of ethanol exposure required to produce skeletal effects is unknown. The objectives of this study were to determine (1) if ethanol exerts specific effects on fetal skeletal development that are independent from its effects on general growth, and (2) the level of prenatal ethanol exposure required to affect fetal growth and skeletal ossification. Rats were fed isocaloric diets with ethanol (15%, 25%, or 36% ethanol-derived calories (EDC), approximating low, moderate, and high exposure levels), or without ethanol (pair-fed, PF, or control, C groups), prior to and throughout 21 days of gestation. The degree of E-induced delay in development was determined by comparison of E fetuses on d21 gestation to C fetuses on d17-d21 gestation. Prenatal ethanol exposure at 36% EDC decreased fetal body weight, length, and skeletal ossification compared with PF and C fetuses on d21 gestation. Importantly, effects on ossification, but not body weight or length, were also seen at the more moderate dose of 25% EDC, and the number of bones affected and the severity of effects on ossification tended to increase with dose of ethanol. Comparison of E fetuses on d21 gestation with C fetuses from d17 to 21 gestation indicated that the ethanol-induced delay in development differed for weight and skeletal ossification, and was not uniform among skeletal sites. Taken together, these data suggest that prenatal ethanol exposure has effects on fetal skeletal development that are independent of those on overall fetal growth, and that these effects occur even at moderate levels of maternal drinking. Effects of prenatal ethanol exposure on fetal skeletal development could potentially increase the offspring's risk of osteoporosis later in life.

Ethanol interferes with the measurement of extracellular ionized calcium

BACKGROUND

Maintenance of extracellular calcium (Ca) concentration within narrow limits is critical for normal cell function and optimization of bone health. Ionized Ca (iCa), the form of Ca that is regulated, has been reported to vary inversely with blood alcohol concentration (BAC). The mechanism by which ethanol decreases blood iCa levels is unknown. However, one possible explanation is that it is, at least partially, a methodological artifact due to an effect of ethanol on the function of the ion selective electrode used to measure iCa. The purpose of this study was to determine if ethanol interferes with the measurement of iCa and if this interference can account for the typically observed in vivo effects of ethanol consumption on blood iCa levels.

METHODS

Ethanol (0-5 microl/ml) was added to blood or iCa standards and the iCa concentration measured using the ICA2 iCa analyzer (Radiometer) or the I-Stat Clinical Analyzer (Abbott Laboratories). Both instruments use an ion selective electrode to measure iCa. The relationship between iCa and BAC determined from the ex vivo addition of ethanol to blood was compared with relationships obtained in vivo during chronic ethanol consumption.

RESULTS

Addition of ethanol to blood or iCa standards resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in iCa concentration when iCa was measured using the ICA2 analyzer but had no effect on iCa concentration when measured with the I-Stat Clinical Analyzer. Ethanol's effect on iCa with the ICA2 analyzer did not differ between blood and standards, and ethanol had no effect on pH, suggesting that the ethanol-induced decrease in iCa was due to a methodological artifact. However, the magnitude of ethanol's effect was small and does not account entirely for the relationship between iCa and BAC observed in vivo with chronic ethanol consumption.

CONCLUSION

Ethanol can interfere with the measurement of iCa using ion selective electrodes, but this interference depends on the analyzer used. This is a significant methodological issue that has largely been unrecognized in the field of alcohol research. Although this interference does not explain entirely the relationship between iCa and BAC observed in vivo in studies on chronic ethanol consumption, it complicates investigations designed to assess the effect of ethanol on Ca homeostasis.

Effect of Duration of Maternal Alcohol Consumption on Calcium Metabolism and Bone in the Fetal Rat

BACKGROUND

Prenatal ethanol exposure can retard fetal growth and delay skeletal development. Ethanol also impairs maternal calcium (Ca) homeostasis and this impairment could mediate some of ethanol's effects on the fetal skeleton. Our previous studies suggest that the duration of maternal ethanol consumption may be an important factor for determining the severity of ethanol's effects on Ca homeostasis and fetal skeletal development. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to determine the effect of the duration of maternal ethanol consumption on fetal growth and skeletal development and to investigate the possibility that ethanol's effects may be related to perturbations in fetal/maternal Ca homeostasis.

METHODS

Rats were fed ethanol (36% ethanol-derived calories) in liquid diets for 3 weeks (days 1-21 of gestation) or 6 weeks (for 3 weeks before and throughout gestation). Fetuses were collected on day 21 of gestation, and body weight and length were measured. Fetuses were stained to determine the degree of skeletal ossification, and fetal blood was analyzed for ethanol, Ca (total and ionic Ca), albumin, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and osteocalcin.

RESULTS

Maternal ethanol consumption decreased fetal growth and delayed fetal skeletal development. Although there was a trend for fetal body length and serum osteocalcin levels to be more severely affected with an increased duration of maternal ethanol consumption, duration had no effect on fetal body weight or skeletal ossification. Fetal Ca homeostasis was also affected by ethanol exposure, with fetal hypocalcemia apparent after 6 weeks of maternal ethanol intake. A significant inverse relationship was found between fetal blood Ca levels and blood alcohol concentration (BAC), suggesting that the severity of the fetal hypocalcemia may have been related to differences in fetal BAC, rather than duration of maternal ethanol intake. Fetal serum PTH levels did not differ significantly among treatment groups indicating that the fetal hypocalcemia was not caused by a decrease in PTH levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal ethanol exposure impaired Ca homeostasis and skeletal development in the fetal rat. The severity of ethanol's effects was only marginally dependent on the duration of maternal ethanol consumption per se and seemed to be more related to the relative exposure of the fetus to ethanol (fetal BAC). The relationship between the ethanol-induced fetal hypocalcemia and skeletal effects remains to be determined.

Effect of Duration of Alcohol Consumption on Calcium and Bone Metabolism During Pregnancy in the Rat

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the consequences of drinking during pregnancy for the long-term health of the mother. Alcohol (ethanol) has been shown to disrupt calcium (Ca) homeostasis and is known to have deleterious effects on bone. During pregnancy, bone turnover is increased to maintain Ca homeostasis; therefore, pregnancy may be a time of life when maternal bone is particularly susceptible to the effects of ethanol. This study investigated the effect of duration of ethanol consumption on Ca homeostasis and bone during pregnancy in the rat.

METHODS

Rats were fed ethanol (36% ethanol-derived calories) in liquid diets for 3 (21 days gestation only) or 6 (3 weeks before and throughout 21 days gestation) weeks. Maternal blood was analyzed for Ca (total and ionized Ca [iCa]), the Ca-regulating hormones (parathyroid hormone [PTH], 1,25(OH)2D, calcitonin), and osteocalcin (a marker for bone formation). Bone was analyzed for ash (mineral) content.

RESULTS

Dams consuming ethanol (E dams) had decreased blood Ca levels (total and iCa) at both 3 and 6 weeks, but iCa was lower in E dams after 6 compared with 3 weeks. Importantly, ethanol seemed to interfere with the normal compensatory response to these decreased Ca levels. In contrast to pair-fed controls, serum PTH levels actually were decreased, 1,25(OH)2D levels failed to increase, and calcitonin levels were increased in ethanol-consuming dams, regardless of duration. Moreover, ethanol decreased bone formation, as indicated by serum osteocalcin levels, after both 3 and 6 weeks consumption, and after 6 weeks, the ash content of bone also was decreased. In addition, a relationship was found between the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and some measures of Ca and bone metabolism. Serum 1,25(OH)2D and osteocalcin levels varied inversely, whereas serum calcitonin varied directly with BAC, suggesting that time of sampling after drinking may be an important variable for interpreting ethanol's effects on Ca and bone metabolism. In all rats, serum osteocalcin levels varied directly with PTH and 1,25(OH)2D levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethanol consumption during pregnancy impaired Ca homeostasis in the dam, regardless of duration of consumption, and resulted in decreased bone formation and ash content of bone. Significant relationships among the Ca-regulating hormones, BAC, and osteocalcin support the hypothesis that ethanol's effects on the Ca-regulating hormones may mediate some of its effects on bone.

Differential metabolic response to 48 h food deprivation at different periods of pregnancy in the rat

Since during pregnancy the mother switches from an anabolic to a catabolic condition, the present study was addressed to determine the effect of 48 h food deprivation on days 7, 14 and 20 of pregnancy in the rat as compared to age matched virgin controls. Body weight, free of conceptus, decreased with food deprivation more in pregnant than in virgin rats, with fetal weight (day 20) also diminishing with maternal starvation. The decline of plasma glucose with food deprivation was greatest in 20 day pregnant rats. Insulin was highest in fed 14 day pregnant rats, and declined with food deprivation in all the groups, the effect being not significant in 7-day pregnant rats. Food deprivation increased plasma glycerol only in virgin and 20 day pregnant rats. Plasma NEFA and 3-hydroxybutyrate increased with food deprivation in all groups, the effect being highest in 20 day pregnant rats. Food deprivation decreased plasma triacylglycerols in 14 day pregnant rats but increased in 20 day pregnant rats. In 20-day fetuses, plasma levels of glucose, NEFA and triacylglycerols were lower than in their mothers when fed, and food deprivation caused a further decline in plasma glucose, whereas both NEFA and 3-hydroxybutyrate increased. Liver triacylglycerols concentration did not differ among the groups when fed, whereas food deprivation caused an increase in all pregnant rats and fetuses, the effect being highest in 20-day pregnant rats. Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in adipose tissue was lower in 20 day pregnant rats than in any of the other groups when fed, and it decreased in all the groups with food deprivation, whereas in liver it was very low in all groups when fed and increased with food deprivation only in 20 day pregnant rats. A significant increase in liver LPL was found with food deprivation in 20 day fetuses, reaching higher values than their mothers. Thus, the response to food deprivation varies with the time of pregnancy, being lowest at mid pregnancy and greatest at late pregnancy, and although fetuses respond in the same direction as their mothers, they show a specific response in liver LPL activity.

Insulin signaling in chick embryos exposed to alcohol

Although insulin is known to be an important generator of regulatory signals during fetal growth and development, neither the immediate nor long-term effects of alcohol (ethanol) on insulin action are well understood. In the rat, fetal exposure to alcohol has been shown to be correlated with a subsequent abnormal response to a glucose load in the neonate and adult. Further, fetal hypoplasia secondary to maternal alcohol consumption is correlated with decreased placental glucose transport and with a lowering of the glucose levels in fetal tissues. However, the fetal effects of alcohol cannot be completely overcome by glucose/caloric supplementation, suggesting that factors other than glucose transport are involved. Using an embryonic chick model that negates the factors of maternal/placental metabolism and transport, the current study found that fetal alcohol exposure markedly increased insulin binding in developing tissue, but had little effect on the binding of the insulin-like growth factors. Competitive binding experiments revealed a marked increase in insulin receptor numbers, but no change in binding affinity as a result of the alcohol exposure. Basal uptake of 2-deoxyglucose by fetal tissue was lowered by alcohol exposure, but incubation with exogenous porcine insulin (1 x 10(-7) M) resulted in a significant increase in glucose uptake by the alcohol-exposed embryos. The increases in insulin binding and in insulin-dependent glucose uptake notwithstanding, exogenous insulin could not induce normal levels of ornithine decarboxylase activity in embryonic cells previously exposed to alcohol.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of chronic ethanol consumption on gestation and lactation in rats

Chronic consumption of ethanol during pregnancy and lactation may lead to abnormalities in the fetus or infant. A group of female Wistar rats was submitted to ethanol treatment over a period of a month. A pair-fed control group received sucrose solution isocaloric to ethanol and the control group received water "ad libitum." Afterward, the females were mated with males over a period of 20 days. At birth, each litter was maximized to eight pups and the remaining ones were decapitated to remove the fetal blood and brains. No significant difference was observed in fetal body and brain weight at birth. During lactation the ethanol and pair-fed groups gained less weight than the control group. After weaning, their weight became similar. Fetal blood glucose levels were decreased in the ethanol-treated group. One hundred percent of the pair-fed and control females delivered live fetuses at term and all survived; only 40% of the females in the ethanol group delivered, and one pup did not survive. Chronic ethanol treatment pointed to a possible reduction in the fertility. It seems likely that the change in body weight of ethanol-fed dams was caused by undernutrition.

Permanent abnormal response to a glucose load after prenatal ethanol exposure in rats

Postnatal development of the glucose and insulin balance in offspring of ethanol-treated and control rats has been studied. Newborn rats were separated from their mothers and placed with normal lactating, nonethanol-treated dams. Prenatal exposure to ethanol led to hypoglycemia on the first day of extrauterine life and a general tendency to hyperinsulinemia during the entire postnatal period studied. The glucose-tolerance test in weaned rats (30 days old) gave a greater and faster increase than controls in levels of both glucose and plasma insulin. At adult age (90 days) the response of blood glucose to an oral glucose load in offspring from ethanol-treated mothers was not different from that in offspring from controls, but the insulin response was higher. This abnormal insulin response, such a long time after the end of ethanol exposure, suggests either a permanent alteration in the pancreatic response, or a peripheral insulin resistance and/or differences in the rate of insulin degradation in these animals.

Decreased in vivo rate of ethanol metabolism in the suckLing rat

Blood concentrations of ethanol and acetaldehyde were determined in suckling rats after a single oral ethanol gavage. These results were compared with the hepatic activities of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase. After intragastric administration of 3 g/kg body weight of ethanol, ethanol concentrations were much higher in suckling rats than in adult animals, especially at 90, 120, and 180 min after its administration. In addition, acetaldehyde concentrations were undetectable in suckling rats as opposed to adult rats, in whom micromolar concentrations were detected. Thus, 5- to 30-day-old rats seem to have a limited capacity for in vivo ethanol metabolism. The analysis of hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase activity revealed that it was very low at birth and it increased progressively with time attaining adult levels after 20 days of life. The alcohol dehydrogenase activity present in the liver of suckling rats presented similar Km values and sensitivity to pyrazole as adult rat liver. Thus, the pattern of in vivo ethanol elimination during the suckling period is not explained by hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase activity. Whether that diminished ethanol metabolism is due to slower intestinal ethanol absorption, different ethanol distribution in the body, or diminished hepatic capacity for NADH reoxidation remains to be studied. At birth, hepatic aldehyde dehydrogenase activity was low and it increased reaching adult levels during the suckling period. Adult levels for the component of low Km were attained earlier than for the component of high Km. The low affinity hepatic aldehyde dehydrogenase component in the newborn was different from that in the adult as assessed by kinetic studies and by its sensitivity to disulfiram.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Metabolic response to starvation at late gestation in chronically ethanol-treated and pair-fed undernourished rats

To study the role of undernourishment in the negative effects of ethanol during pregnancy and to determine whether maternal ethanol intake modifies metabolic response to starvation at late gestation, female rats receiving ethanol in their drinking water before and during pregnancy (ethanol group) were compared with animals that received the same amount of solid diet as the ethanol group rats (pair-fed group) and with normal rats fed ad libitum (control group). All animals were killed on the 21st day of gestation, either in the fed state or after 24-hours fasting. The body weight of ethanol rats was lower than that of controls but higher than that of pair-fed rats. When compared with controls, ethanol and pair-fed rats had reduced fetal body weights, whereas fetal body length was reduced only in the former. In the fed state, blood glucose concentration was lower in the ethanol and pair-fed rats and fetuses than in controls. Twenty-four-hour starvation caused a reduction in this parameter only in control and ethanol mothers. In the fed state, maternal liver glycogen concentration was lower in ethanol and higher in pair-fed mothers than in controls. Blood beta-hydroxybutyrate levels were higher in ethanol-treated mothers than in the others, and 24-hour starvation increased this parameter in ethanol and control rats to a greater extent than in the pair-fed ones. Liver triacylglyceride concentration was higher in ethanol-treated mothers than in the other two groups, and starvation caused this concentration to increase in ethanol and control groups but not in the pair-fed group.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of chronic ethanol consumption on lactational performance in rat: mammary gland and milk composition and pups' growth and metabolism

The effects of chronic ethanol consumption on lactational performance were studied in the rat on day 15 after delivery by determining mammary gland and milk composition, while growth rate and metabolic parameters were studied in pups coming from untreated mothers but being suckled by ethanol-treated mothers. Alcohol treatment increases the dry weight and lipoprotein lipase activity in the mammary gland, and decreases both absolute and relative mammary gland weight and mammary tissue protein content. The triacylglycerol concentration of milk from treated dams is increased, whereas lactose concentration is decreased in comparison to milk from controls, although the total energy content of milk from alcohol-treated dams is higher than that from controls. Ethanol treatment produces a reduction of daily milk production. Pups nursed by alcoholic mothers show a retarded growth with respect to pups nursed by untreated mothers. Furthermore, they present a reduction in the levels of circulating glucose, insulin, glycerol and free fatty acids, whereas an increase in acetoacetate and in urea levels is observed. Pups from alcoholic mothers show reduced glycogen concentration in the liver while the protein content is increased. Plasma free amino acids in pups nursed by alcoholic mothers are lower than in control pups, the differences in Ala, Glu+Gln, Gly, Pro, 4-OH-Pro, citrulline, Cys, Tyr, Phe and the combined total values being statistically significant. We may therefore draw the conclusion that chronic ethanol treatment impairs lactational performance affecting mammary gland function as shown by the decline in milk production and altered milk composition.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of prenatal ethanol exposure on physical growth, sensory reflex maturation and brain development in the rat

In the offspring of ethanol-treated rats during gestation (25% ethanol in drinking water) decreased litter size, increased postnatal mortality rate, reduced body weight and body size, delayed ear opening, eyelid opening and teeth eruption, retarded air righting reflex acquisition, impaired brain growth, reduced cortical thickness and delayed maturation of layer Vth's pyramidal neurons: reduced basilar dendritic arborization and decreased number of spines in the apical dendrite, were observed when compared with age-matched controls fed with a standard diet. Minimal effects were found in the offspring of fibre-treated rats during gestation (standard diet mixed with cellulose) in which the body weight was similar to that of controls, although both the calorific intake from food and the mother's weight gain during pregnancy were similar to those of the ethanol-treated group. All these abnormal parameters became normal at the end of the first month of postnatal life, indicating recovery of these developmental defects produced by prenatal ethanol consumption.

Ethanol administration in the drinking fluid to pregnant rats as a model for the fetal alcohol syndrome

Addition of ethanol (ET) to the drinking fluid of pregnant rats has been questioned as an experimental model for the fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). This model, however, closely simulates human alcohol intake, and in this study we used a modified version of previous protocols to overcome their major defects. A group of female rats was given 10% ET in drinking fluid for one week, 15% for the second week, 20% for the third, and 25% for the fourth, at the end of which they were mated with non-treated males and given 25% ET throughout gestation. Three groups of non-ET treated sex and age-matched rats were studied in parallel: (1) normal controls receiving solid diet ad lib, (2) paired fed rats, and (3) rats fed ad lib the solid diet mixed with 50% fiber. In the ET group, food intake decreased as ET consumption augmented, the ET calories comprising over 30% of the total energy intake during pregnancy. Total energy intake was similar for ET group and normal controls, and was higher than in paired fed animals or those on 50% fiber diet. Body weight gain in ET rats was similar to those on 50% fiber diet, lower than in normal controls and higher than in paired fed animals. At the 21st day of gestation, rats on ET had plasma ethanol levels of 147 +/- 18 mg/dl and higher plasma osmolality than in the other groups studied. In ET rats, fetal body weight was lower than in either normal controls or rats on 50% fiber diet, and fetal body length was shorter than in any other group.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of chronic ethanol ingestion on circulating metabolites and liver composition in the lactating rat

A model of chronic ethanol administration has been used to study the effects of chronic ethanol consumption on the general metabolism of lactating rats on day 15 after delivery. We have studied the effects of ethanol on calories, food and fluid intake, body weight, circulating parameters such as glucose, glycerol, free fatty acids (FFA), triacylglycerols (TAG), amino acids (AA), ketone bodies, insulin and ethanol levels and liver composition. Chronic ethanol consumption markedly increases the levels of circulating B-OH-butyrate (B-OB-B), glycerol and FFA, while those of acetoacetate (AcAc), glucose, insulin and TAG remain constant. With the only exception of an increase in Glu + Gln levels, plasma AA decrease in the alcohol-treated rats, the change being significant for Ala, Pro, Lys, Arg, Val, Phe and 4-OH-proline. In the liver ethanol treatment causes an increment in TAG concentration and a decrease in glycogen content. In conclusion, chronic ethanol consumption produces notable alterations in the metabolism of lactating rats, which may diminish the efficiency of lactation, influencing milk production and, therefore, the pups' development.

Effects of chronic ethanol treatment on glucose tolerance, insulin response and circulating metabolites in the pregnant rat

The effects of chronic ethanol treatment on intravenous glucose tolerance and insulin response in non-pregnant and pregnant rats were studied. Basal circulating glucose, insulin, and ketone bodies levels were also determined during the treatment. Basal blood glucose concentration did not change during the ethanol treatment whereas plasma insulin levels were lower at the beginning of gestation and at the 15 and 18 days of pregnancy in ethanol-treated rats. Blood beta-OH-butyrate levels were higher and acetoacetate concentrations unchanged during the ethanol treatment, resulting in augmented beta-OH-butyrate/acetoacetate ratio. Intravenous glucose tolerance was not modified in ethanol-treated rats whilst the associated insulin response was lower in both non-pregnant and pregnant ethanol-treated rats. Data show that ethanol treatment during pregnancy alters glucose-insulin relationships despite being associated with unchanged maternal glycemia.

Glucose tolerance and insulin response in offspring of ethanol-treated pregnant rats

The effects of maternal alcohol ingestion on oral glucose tolerance and insulin response were studied just after birth and in 3-day old offspring of rats given ethanol for drinking (25% w/v) during pregnancy. Offspring litter size, litter survival and body weight were reduced as a consequence of maternal alcohol treatment. Basal plasma insulin levels were augmented in pups from alcoholized mothers just after birth, despite the fact that blood glucose did not change. Maternal alcohol consumption caused glucose intolerance associated with unchanged insulin response in pups just after birth whereas 3-day old pups from alcoholized mothers showed normal glucose tolerance associated with increased insulin response. Data indicate that chronic maternal ethanol treatment may cause impaired insulin sensitivity in the offspring.

The effect of long-term ethanol maternal ingestion and withdrawal on brain regional monoamine and amino acid precursors in 15-day-old rats

The effects of alcohol on brain monoamines were studied in 15-day-old offspring of rats given ethanol until the 21st day of gestation or the 15th day post partum. Increased noradrenaline concentrations were found in limbic system, hemispheres, diencephalon and brain stem of pups from mothers under alcohol treatment, and in hemispheres, diencephalon and brain stem of pups from deprived mothers. Serotonin and 5-hydroxyindol acetic acid were augmented in limbic system, diencephalon and brain stem of pups from mothers under alcohol whereas tyrosine was decreased in all brain regions studied in pups from alcoholic and deprived mothers. Consequently, chronic ethanol ingestion by pregnant rats has deleterious effects on CNS development of 15-day-old offspring which persists 15 days after alcohol withdrawal.