Sequence of the murine interferon-inducible RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) deduced from genomic clones

Increased expression of the dsRNA-activated protein kinase PKR in breast cancer promotes sensitivity to doxorubicin

It has been reported that the expression and activity of the interferon-inducible, dsRNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR, is increased in mammary carcinoma cell lines and primary tumor samples. To extend these findings and determine how PKR signaling may affect breast cancer cell sensitivity to chemotherapy, we measured PKR expression by immunohistochemical staining of 538 cases of primary breast cancer and normal tissues. Significantly, PKR expression was elevated in ductal, lobular and squamous cell carcinomas or lymph node metastases but not in either benign tumor specimens or cases of inflammation compared to normal tissues. Furthermore, PKR expression was increased in precancerous stages of mammary cell hyperplasia and dysplasia compared to normal tissues, indicating that PKR expression may be upregulated by the process of tumorigenesis. To test the function of PKR in breast cancer, we generated MCF7, T-47D and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines with significantly reduced PKR expression by siRNA knockdown. Importantly, while knockdown of PKR expression had no effect on cell proliferation under normal growth conditions, MCF7, T-47D or MDA-MB-231 cells with reduced PKR expression or treated with a small molecule PKR inhibitor were significantly less sensitive to doxorubicin or H₂O₂-induced toxicity compared to control cells. In addition, the rate of eIF2α phosphorylation following treatment with doxorubicin was delayed in breast cancer cell lines with decreased PKR expression. Significantly, treatment of breast cancer lines with reduced PKR expression with either interferon-α, which increases PKR expression, or salubrinal, which increases eIF2α phosphorylation, restored doxorubicin sensitivity to normal levels. Taken together these results indicate that increased PKR expression in primary breast cancer tissues may serve as a biomarker for response to doxorubicin-containing chemotherapy and that future therapeutic approaches to promote PKR expression/activation and eIF2α phosphorylation may be beneficial for the treatment of breast cancer.

Orchestration of the activation of protein kinase R by the RNA-binding motif

The protein kinase R (PKR) constitutes part of the host antiviral response. PKR activation is regulated by the N-terminus of protein, which encodes tandem RNA-binding motifs (RBMs). The full capabilities of RBMs from PKR and other proteins have surpassed the narrow specificities initially determined as merely binding double-stranded RNA. Recognition of the increased affinity of the RBM for additional RNA species has established an immunological distinction by which PKR can detect exogenous RNAs, as well as identified PKR-mediated expression of specific endogenous genes. Furthermore, as RBMs also mediate interactions with other proteins, including PKR itself, this motif connects PKR to the broader RNA metabolism. Given the fundamental importance of protein-RNA interactions, not only in the innate immune response to intracellular pathogens, but also to coordinate the cellular replication machinery, there is considerable interest in the mechanisms by which proteins recognize and respond to RNA. This review appraises our understanding of how PKR activity is modulated by the RBMs.

Interferon-independent, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120-mediated induction of CXCL10/IP-10 gene expression by astrocytes in vivo and in vitro

The CXC chemokine gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-inducible protein CXCL10/IP-10 is markedly elevated in cerebrospinal fluid and brain of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and is implicated in the pathogenesis of HIV-associated dementia (HAD). To explore the possible role of CXCL10/IP-10 in HAD, we examined the expression of this and other chemokines in the central nervous system (CNS) of transgenic mice with astrocyte-targeted expression of HIV gp120 under the control of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter, a murine model for HIV-1 encephalopathy. Compared with wild-type controls, CNS expression of the CC chemokine gene CCL2/MCP-1 and the CXC chemokine genes CXCL10/IP-10 and CXCL9/Mig was induced in the GFAP-HIV gp120 mice. CXCL10/IP-10 RNA expression was increased most and overlapped the expression of the transgene-encoded HIV gp120 gene. Astrocytes and to a lesser extent microglia were identified as the major cellular sites for CXCL10/IP-10 gene expression. There was no detectable expression of any class of IFN or their responsive genes. In astrocyte cultures, soluble recombinant HIV gp120 protein was capable of directly inducing CXCL10/IP-10 gene expression a process that was independent of STAT1. These findings highlight a novel IFN- and STAT1-independent mechanism for the regulation of CXCL10/IP-10 expression and directly link expression of HIV gp120 to the induction of CXCL10/IP-10 that is found in HIV infection of the CNS. Finally, one function of IP-10 expression may be the recruitment of leukocytes to the CNS, since the brain of GFAP-HIV gp120 mice had increased numbers of CD3(+) T cells that were found in close proximity to sites of CXCL10/IP-10 RNA expression.

Mouse interferon-inducible RNA-dependent protein kinase Pkr gene: cloning and sequence of the 5'-flanking region and functional identification of the minimal inducible promoter

The RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is implicated in the antiviral and antiproliferative actions of interferon (IFN). As an extension of our structural characterization of the exon-intron organization of the mouse Pkr gene, we now have isolated and characterized the mouse Pkr promoter region required for IFN-inducible transcription. Transient transfection analyses, using reporter constructs possessing various 5'-flanking fragments of the Pkr gene, led to the identification of a functional IFN-inducible promoter. A single IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) was present in a minimal 44-nt TATA-less promoter identified by deletion analysis; the 13-nt ISRE differed from previously described ISRE elements in that the 3'-nt was a purine instead of a pyrimidine. The sequence immediately upstream of the ISRE possessed the 15-nt KCS element that was exactly conserved in sequence and position between the mouse and human Pkr promoters. A single gamma IFN-activated sequence (GAS)-like element and multiple recognition sites for factors including NF-kappaB and NF-IL6 involved in responses to various cytokine and hormone signals in inflammatory responses were also present in the 5'-flanking region. Northern blot analysis showed efficient IFN-alpha induced accumulation of 2.4kb, 4.5kb and approx. 6kb Pkr transcripts, but neither IFN-gamma nor IL-6 induced detectable Pkr mRNA accumulation in L cells.

IFN-alpha1 plasmid construct affords protection against HSV-1 infection in transfected L929 fibroblasts

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the resistance against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) using an interferon-alpha1 (IFN-alpha1) transgene in specifically targeted cells in vitro. Transfection of mouse fibroblast L929 cells with an IFN-alpha1 plasmid construct reduced viral load and viral gene expression in a time-dependent fashion. Supernatants from IFN-alpha1-transfected cells augmented natural killer (NK) cell activity, and such an effect was antagonized with neutralizing antibody to IFN-alpha/beta. In addition, transfected cells displayed an increase in the IFN inducible genes (2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase [2',5'-OAS], T cell-specific guanine nucleotide triphosphate-binding protein, IFN regulatory factor 1 [IRF-1], and major histocompatibility complex [MHC] class I) compared with plasmid vector-treated controls. Collectively, these results show that IFN-alpha1 transfection of cells in vitro induces or upregulates a spectrum of IFN-regulated genes involved in the direct or indirect antiviral action of this cytokine. In addition, the transgene significantly increases the resistance of transfected cells in vitro to HSV-1 infection.

Characterization of transgenic mice with targeted disruption of the catalytic domain of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR

The interferon-inducible, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR has been implicated in anti-viral, anti-tumor, and apoptotic responses. Others have attempted to examine the requirement of PKR in these roles by targeted disruption at the amino terminal-encoding region of the Pkr gene. By using a strategy that aims at disruption of the catalytic domain of PKR, we have generated mice that are genetically ablated for functional PKR. Similar to the other mouse model of Pkr disruption, we have observed no consequences of loss of PKR on tumor suppression. Anti-viral response to influenza and vaccinia also appeared to be normal in mice and in cells lacking PKR. Cytokine signaling in the type I interferon pathway is normal but may be compromised in the erythropoietin pathway in erythroid bone marrow precursors. Contrary to the amino-terminal targeted Pkr mouse, tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis and the anti-viral apoptosis response to influenza is not impaired in catalytic domain-targeted Pkr-null cells. The observation of intact eukaryotic initiation factor-2alpha phosphorylation in these Pkr-null cells provides proof of rescue by another eukaryotic initiation factor-2alpha kinase(s).

Reoviruses and the interferon system

Reovirus induces IFN, and reovirus is sensitive to the antiviral actions of IFN. The characteristics of the IFN-inducing capacity of reovirus, and the antiviral actions of IFN exerted against reovirus, are dependent upon the specific combination of reovirus strain, host cell line, and IFN type. Responses, both IFN induction and IFN action, differ quantitatively if not qualitatively and are dependent upon the virus, cell, and IFN combination. Stable natural dsRNA, identified as the form of nucleic acid that constitutes the reovirus genome, is centrally involved in the function of at least three IFN-induced enzymes. Protein phosphorylation by PKR, RNA editing by the ADAR adenosine deaminase, and RNA degradation by the 2',5'-oligoA pathway all involve dsRNA either as an effector or as a substrate. Considerable evidence implicates PKR as a particularly important contributor to the IFN-induced antiviral state displayed at the level of the single virus-infected cell, where the translation of viral mRNA is often observed to be inhibited following treatment with IFN-alpha/beta. In the whole animal infected with reovirus, elevated cellular immune responses mediated by enhanced expression of MHC class I and class II antigens induced by IFN-alpha/beta or IFN-gamma may contribute significantly to the overall antiviral response.

The double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR: structure and function

This review describes the structure and function of the interferon (IFN)-inducible, double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase PKR. This protein kinase has been studied extensively in recent years, and a large body of evidence has accumulated concerning its expression, interaction with regulatory RNA and protein molecules, and modes of activation and inhibition. PKR has been shown to play a variety of important roles in the regulation of translation, transcription, and signal transduction pathways through its ability to phosphorylate protein synthesis initiation factor eIF2, I-kappaB (the inhibitor of NF-kappaB), and other substrates. Expression studies involving both the wild-type protein and dominant negative mutants of PKR have established roles for the enzyme in the antiviral effects of IFNs, in the responses of uninfected cells to physiologic stresses, and in cell growth regulation. The possibility that PKR may function as a tumor suppressor and inducer of apoptosis suggests that this IFN-regulated protein kinase may be of central importance to the control of cell proliferation and transformation.

Mechanism of interferon action sequence of the human interferon-inducible RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) deduced from genomic clones

The pkr gene encoding the interferon-inducible, RNA-dependent protein kinase was isolated as lambda phage and P1 phage clones from human genomic DNA and characterized by restriction mapping, Southern blot analysis, and nucleotide sequencing. The genomic nucleotide sequence, when compared to that of previously determined cDNA sequences, revealed 17 exons encoding the 551-amino-acid PKR protein. We report herein the sequence of the human PKR protein kinase deduced from genomic clones.