Effect of scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus (H&E) venom on the clinical chemistry parameters of the rat

Effect of Egyptian spitting cobra Naja nubiae crude venom on immunogenic activity of rats

Snakes show defensive activities, often counting visual or auditory displays against an aggressor. The study observed what happens to rats administered subcutaneously sub-lethal doses of crude venom Naja nubiae. The pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), as well as the anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-10 (IL-10), and inflammatory mediator's prostaglandin E-2 (PG-E2), were evaluated. Vascular permeability (VP) was employed to assess how leaky or permeable blood vessels are in various tissues and organs, including the rat peritoneal cavity and lymphoid organs. Lymphoid organs' histological alterations brought on by Nubiae venom. The study found that the two venom doses-1/4 and 1/2 LD50-induced high levels of inflammatory activity as evidenced by the production of inflammatory cytokines. These findings demonstrated that venom enhanced innate immunity through specifically increased T helper cells, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, and PG-E2. The results reveal whether the venom has an immunomodulatory effect and promotes inflammation. The data have a substantial impact on the development of new drugs and treatments for inflammatory conditions.

A Novel Therapeutic Formulation for the Improved Treatment of Indian Red Scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) Venom-Induced Toxicity-Tested in Caenorhabditis elegans and Rodent Models

Indian Red Scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) stings are a neglected public health problem in tropical and sub-tropical countries, including India. The drawbacks of conventional therapies using commercial anti-scorpion antivenom (ASA) and α1-adrenoreceptor antagonists (AAA) have prompted us to search for an adequate formulation to improve treatment against M. tamulus stings. Novel therapeutic drug formulations (TDF) of low doses of commercial ASA, AAA, and ascorbic acid have remarkably improved in neutralising the in vivo toxic effects of M. tamulus venom (MTV) tested in Caenorhabditis elegans and Wistar strain albino rats in vivo models. The neutralisation of MTV-induced production of free radicals, alteration of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and upregulated expression of genes involved in apoptosis, detoxification, and stress response in C. elegans by TDF surpassed the same effect shown by individual components of the TDF. Further, TDF efficiently neutralized the MTV-induced increase in blood glucose level within 30 to 60 min post-treatment, organ tissue damage, necrosis, and pulmonary oedema in Wistar rats, indicating its clinical application for effecting treating M. tamulus envenomation. This study demonstrates for the first time that C. elegans can be a model organism for screening the neutralization potency of the drug molecules against a neurotoxic scorpion venom.

The knockout effect of low doses of gamma radiation on hepatotoxicity induced byEchis Coloratussnake venom in rats.. [DOI: 10.1101/705251]

Echis Coloratusis the most medically important viper in Egypt causing several pathological effects leading to death. Gamma radiation has been used as a venom detoxifying tool in order to extend the lifespan of the immunized animals used in antivenin production process. Thus, the aim of this study is to assess the effects of increasing doses of gamma radiation onEchis Coloratusin vivo through biochemical and histological studies. The results revealed a significant increase in the levels of AST, ALT, ALP and glucose of sera collected from the rats injected with nativeEchis Coloratusvenom compared with the non-envenomed group. On the other hand, biochemical parameters of sera of rats administrated with either 1.5 kGy or 3 kGy irradiated venom were significantly decrease compared with the native venom envenomed group at 2h, 4h and 24h post envenomation. In addition, these results were confirmed by histological studies of rats’ livers. Correspondingly, the sublethal dose injection of nativeEchis Coloratusvenom induced significant alterations in the histological architecture of liver after 2, 4 and 24 h of injection. Concurrently, the administration of both 1.5 kGy and 3 kGy gamma irradiated venom showed fewer histological alterations compared with the native group. In conclusion, the present findings support the idea of using gamma radiation as an effective venom detoxification tool.

In vitro studies with renal proximal tubule cells show direct cytotoxicity of Androctonus australis hector scorpion venom triggered by oxidative stress, caspase activation and apoptosis

Scorpion envenomation injures a number of organs, including the kidney. Mechanisms proposed to explain the renal tubule injury include direct effects of venom on tubule epithelial cells, as well as indirect effects of the autonomic nervous system, and inflammation. Here, we report direct effects of Androctonus australis hector (Aah) scorpion venom on the viability of Renal Proximal Tubule (RPT) cells in vitro, unlike distal tubule and collecting duct cells. Extensive NucGreen nuclear staining was observed in immortalized rabbit RPT cells following treatment with Aah venom, consistent with cytotoxicity. The involvement of oxidative stress is supported by the observations that 1) anti-oxidants mitigated the Aah venom-induced decrease in the number of viable RPT cells, and 2) Aah venom-treated RPT cells were intensively stained with the CellROX(®) Deep Red reagent, an indicator of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Relevance to normal RPT cells is supported by the red fluorescence observed in Aah venom treated primary rabbit RPT cell cultures following their incubation with the Flica reagent (indicative of caspase activation and apoptosis), and the green fluorescence of Sytox Green (indicative of dead cells).

Effect of Androctonus bicolor scorpion venom on serum electrolytes in rats: A 24-h time-course study

Black fat-tailed scorpion (Androctonus bicolor) belongs to the family Buthidae and is one of the most venomous scorpions in the world. The effects of A. bicolor venom on serum electrolytes were not known and therefore investigated in this study. Adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into seven groups with five animals in each group. One of the groups served as control and received vehicle only. The animals in the remaining groups received a single subcutaneous injection of crude A. bicolor venom (200 μg/kg bodyweight) and were killed at different time intervals including 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8 h, and 24 h after venom injection. The results showed that scorpion venom caused significant increase in serum sodium levels within 30 min after injection which slightly subsided after 1 h and then persisted over 24 h. Serum potassium levels continued to significantly increase until 4 h and then slightly subsided. There were significant decreases in serum magnesium (Mg(+)) levels following scorpion venom injection, at all the time points during the course of study. Serum calcium levels were significantly increased during the entire course of study, whereas serum chloride was significantly decreased. In conclusion, A. bicolor envenomation in rats caused severe and persistent hypomagnesemia with accompanied hypernatremia, hyperkalemia, and hypercalcemia. It is important to measure serum Mg(+) levels in victims of scorpion envenomation, and patients with severe Mg(+) deficiency should be treated accordingly.

Biochemical and enzymatic changes after black scorpion Heterometrus fastigiousus Couzijn envenomation in experimental albino mice

The toxic effects of Asian black scorpion Heterometrus fastigiousus (Family, Scorpionidae) venom were determined in albino mice (NIH strain). Venom was isolated and fractioned by Sepharose CL-6B column chromatography. The toxicity of fractioned venom was determined in albino mice by subcutaneous envenomation. The LD(50) of venom was found to be 15 mg kg(-1) body weight and range of molecular weight of venom proteins responsible for toxicity was found from 9.5-63 kDs. The effects of fractioned venom on different biochemical and enzymatic parameters in blood serum and gastrocnemius muscle tissue of albino mice were determined after experimental envenomation. An increase in serum levels of glucose, free amino acids, uric acid, pyruvic acid and total protein was observed while a decrease in the cholesterol level in serum was observed after 4 h of envenomation. Increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP), acid phosphatase (ACP), lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) and glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (GPT) enzyme activity in serum was observed. Glycogen content in liver, atria, ventricle, rectus abdominus and gastrocnemius muscle was decreased after experimental envenomation. Activity of ALP, ACP, LDH, GPT, AChE and Na+K+ATPase enzymes in gastrocnemius muscle tissue of envenomed albino mice was studied. Inhibition in ALP, AChE and Na+K+ATPase enzyme activity and increase in ACP, LDH and GPT enzyme activity was observed in gastrocnemius muscle after scorpion envenomation. In vitro studies with AChE and Na+K+ATPase enzymes indicated that enzymatic activity of AChE was inhibited competitively by fractioned venom in gastrocnemius muscle.

Dose-dependent serum biochemical alterations in Wistar albino rats after Palamneus gravimanus (Indian black scorpion) envenomation

Palamneus gravimanus envenomated rats showed dose-dependent alterations in serum biochemical parameters. Sub lethal doses of 100, 200, and 400 microg/kg of P. gravimanus venom were injected intramuscularly into rats. Blood samples were collected by heart puncture before and 4 h after crude venom administration. Serum was analyzed for glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid, total protein, cholesterol, sodium, potassium, inorganic phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase (AST-SGOT), alanine amino-transferase (ALT-SGPT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and creatinine phosphokinase (CPK). Statistically significant increases in serum levels of glucose, creatinine, AST, ALT, BUN, CPK, and LDH and significant decreases in serum levels of total protein, uric acid, cholesterol, calcium, and potassium 4 h after venom administration could be due to the toxic action of P. gravimanus venom on certain organs in rats.

The dielectric properties of neutron irradiated snake venom and its pathological impact

The changes in the dielectric properties of a saline solution of Cerastes cerastes snake venom after irradiation with low-level doses of fast neutrons from a Cf-252 source, were investigated. The pathological changes in the internal organs such as liver, kidney spleen, lung and heart of the rats injected with unirradiated and irradiated venom were also studied. The changes in the molecular structure of a diluted saline solution of snake venom were measured through dielectric relaxation studies in the frequency range 0.1-10 MHz at 4 +/- 0.5 degrees C. The absorption spectra of the venom solution were measured in the wavelength range 200 to 600 nm. The results indicated remarkable changes in the molecular radii, shape, relaxation time and dielectric increment of the venom molecules as a result of irradiation. Also, the intensities of the absorption bands of the venom solution decreased as a result of the irradiation process. Furthermore, the pathological examination results indicated that the toxicity of the irradiated venom decreased as compared with that of unirradiated venom, hence increasing the chance of repair of the affected organs.