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Cravotto C, Fabiano-Tixier AS, Claux O, Abert-Vian M, Tabasso S, Cravotto G, Chemat F. Towards Substitution of Hexane as Extraction Solvent of Food Products and Ingredients with No Regrets. Foods 2022; 11:3412. [PMID: 36360023 PMCID: PMC9655691 DOI: 10.3390/foods11213412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Hexane is a solvent used extensively in the food industry for the extraction of various products such as vegetable oils, fats, flavours, fragrances, colour additives or other bioactive ingredients. As it is classified as a "processing aid", it does not have to be declared on the label under current legislation. Therefore, although traces of hexane may be found in final products, especially in processed products, its presence is not known to consumers. However, hexane, and in particular the n-hexane isomer, has been shown to be neurotoxic to humans and has even been listed as a cause of occupational diseases in several European countries since the 1970s. In order to support the European strategy for a toxic-free environment (and toxic-free food), it seemed important to collect scientific information on this substance by reviewing the available literature. This review contains valuable information on the nature and origin of the solvent hexane, its applications in the food industry, its toxicological evaluation and possible alternatives for the extraction of natural products. Numerous publications have investigated the toxicity of hexane, and several studies have demonstrated the presence of its toxic metabolite 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) in the urine of the general, non-occupationally exposed population. Surprisingly, a tolerable daily intake (TDI) has apparently never been established by any food safety authority. Since hexane residues are undoubtedly found in various foods, it seems more than necessary to clearly assess the risks associated with this hidden exposure. A clear indication on food packaging and better information on the toxicity of hexane could encourage the industry to switch towards one of the numerous other alternative extraction methods already developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Cravotto
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
| | | | - Ombéline Claux
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
| | - Maryline Abert-Vian
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
| | - Silvia Tabasso
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Cravotto
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - Farid Chemat
- GREEN Extraction Team, INRAE, UMR 408, Avignon University, F-84000 Avignon, France
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Spencer PS, Chen X. The Role of Protein Adduction in Toxic Neuropathies of Exogenous and Endogenous Origin. TOXICS 2021; 9:toxics9050098. [PMID: 33946924 PMCID: PMC8146965 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9050098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The peripheral (axonal) neuropathy associated with repeated exposure to aliphatic and aromatic solvents that form protein-reactive γ-diketones shares some clinical and neuropathological features with certain metabolic neuropathies, including type-II diabetic neuropathy and uremic neuropathy, and with the largely sub-clinical nerve damage associated with old age. These conditions may be linked by metabolites that adduct and cross-link neuroproteins required for the maintenance of axonal transport and nerve fiber integrity in the peripheral and central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S. Spencer
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, and Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Xiao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology of Shenzhen, Shenzhen Medical Key Subject of Health Toxicology (2020–2024), Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shenzhen 518055, China;
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Determination of total urinary 2,5-hexanedione in the Chinese general population. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 150:645-650. [PMID: 27237929 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Determination of the urinary levels of 2.5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) was performed in subjects belonging to the Chinese general population to define the reference value for this metabolite. METHODS Urine samples were collected from 8235 individuals (4216 men and 4019 women) from the healthy general population who had not been occupationally exposed to n-hexane or methyl-n-butyl ketone. The determination was performed by a gas chromatography mass spectrometry method using an ion-trap mass spectrometer. RESULTS The result showed that the urinary 2,5-HD median level was 0.159mg/L for the total samples. Males had statistically significant higher excretion of 2,5-HD in urine than females (median 0.171mg/L compared to 0.147mg/L, Z=-8.21, P<0.001). There was a statistically significant difference in urinary 2,5-HD levels among age groups. The excretion of 2,5-HD in urine was related to increasing age (r=-0.160, P<0.05). There was statistically significant difference in urinary 2,5-HD levels among people from difference provinces. The results showed that there was also a statistically significant effect in urinary 2,5-HD levels between current smokers and non-smokers. CONCLUSION Finding a measurable amount of 2,5-HD in urine does not mean that the level of 2,5-HD causes an adverse health effect. Biomonitoring studies on levels of urinary 2,5-HD can provide physicians and public health officials with reference values so that they can determine whether people have been exposed to higher levels of 2,5-HD than are found in the Chinese general population. These data can also provide a foundation for scientists to make a plan for further study.
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Lu Y, Yao D, Chen C. 2-Hydrazinoquinoline as a Derivatization Agent for LC-MS-Based Metabolomic Investigation of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Metabolites 2013; 3:993-1010. [PMID: 24958262 PMCID: PMC3937830 DOI: 10.3390/metabo3040993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2013] [Revised: 09/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Short-chain carboxylic acids, aldehydes and ketones are products and regulators of many important metabolic pathways. Their levels in biofluids and tissues reflect the status of specific metabolic reactions, the homeostasis of the whole metabolic system and the wellbeing of a biological entity. In this study, the use of 2-hydrazinoquinoline (HQ) as a novel derivatization agent was explored and optimized for simultaneous liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis of carboxylic acids, aldehydes and ketones in biological samples. The formation of carboxylic acid derivative is attributed to the esterification reaction between HQ and a carboxyl group, while the production of aldehyde and ketone derivatives is through the formation of Schiff bases between HQ and a carbonyl group. The compatibility of HQ with biological samples was demonstrated by derivatizing urine, serum and liver extract samples. Using this HQ-based approach, the kinetics of type 1 diabetes-induced metabolic changes was characterized by the LC-MS-based metabolomic analysis of urine samples from streptozotocin (STZ)-treated mice. Subsequently, carboxylic acid, aldehyde and ketone metabolites associated with STZ-elicited disruption of nutrient and energy metabolism were conveniently identified and elucidated. Overall, HQ derivatization of carboxylic acids, aldehydes and ketones could serve as a useful tool for the LC-MS-based metabolomic investigation of endogenous metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwei Lu
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.
| | - Dan Yao
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.
| | - Chi Chen
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.
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Persson B, Vrethem M, Murgia N, Lindh J, Hällsten AL, Fredrikson M, Tondel M. Urinary 2,5-hexanedione excretion in cryptogenic polyneuropathy compared to the general Swedish population. J Occup Med Toxicol 2013; 8:21. [PMID: 23898939 PMCID: PMC3733657 DOI: 10.1186/1745-6673-8-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) is the main neurotoxic metabolite of methyl-n-butyl ketone (MBK) and n-hexane, and known to cause polyneuropathy. The aim of our study was to compare the urinary levels of 2,5-HD between cases with cryptogenic polyneuropathy and the general Swedish population, and to elucidate the role of certain external factors. Methods Morning urine samples were collected from 114 cases with cryptogenic polyneuropathy (77 men and 37 women) and 227 referents (110 men and 117 women) randomly selected from the population registry. None had any current occupational exposure to n-hexane or MBK. The urine samples were analysed by a gas chromatographic method based on acidic hydrolysis. Results Cases had statistically higher urinary levels of 2,5-HD (0.48 mg/L) than the general population (0.41 mg/L) and men higher excretion than women (0.48 mg/L and 0.38 mg/L, respectively). There was no difference in 2,5-HD levels between current smokers and non-smokers. Occupational exposure to xylene, alcohol consumption and ever exposed to general anaesthesia were associated with lower excretion in men while for occupational exposure to nitrous oxide in women higher excretion was seen. Higher excretion of 2,5 HD was inversely related to increasing age. Conclusions Significantly higher levels of urinary 2,5-HD were seen in men and cryptogenic polyneuropathy cases seemingly unexposed to n-hexane. Hypothetically, this might be due to either differences in metabolic patterns or some concealed exposure. The difference in means between cases and the general population is small and can therefore not allow any firm conclusions of the causality, however.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bodil Persson
- Division of Neurology and Neurophysiology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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Al-Dirbashi OY, Rashed MS, Brink HJT, Jakobs C, Filimban N, Al-Ahaidib LY, Jacob M, Al-Sayed MM, Al-Hassnan Z, Faqeih E. Determination of succinylacetone in dried blood spots and liquid urine as a dansylhydrazone by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 831:274-80. [PMID: 16384749 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2005] [Revised: 12/06/2005] [Accepted: 12/08/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Succinylacetone (SA) is a specific marker for the inherited metabolic disease, hepatorenal tyrosinemia. We developed a stable-isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of SA in dried blood spots (DBS) and liquid urine using a (13)C(4)-SA as internal standard. SA was extracted, converted to the butyl ester and derivatized with dansylhydrazine (Dns-H). Calibration curves in DBS and urine calibrators were linear up to 100 and 30 microM, respectively. At a signal-to-noise ratio of 3, the limits of detection in DBS and urine were 0.2 and 0.005 microM, respectively. Total run time was 5 min. Intra- and inter-assay precision expressed as coefficient of variation were better than 9.1% with more than 96% recovery. The method was applied retrospectively and prospectively for the diagnosis of hepatorenal tyrosinemia and for follow-up of patients under treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama Y Al-Dirbashi
- Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, P.O. Box 3354, Takhsussi Road, MBC-03, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia
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Prieto MJ, Marhuenda D, Roel J, Cardona A. Free and total 2,5-hexanedione in biological monitoring of workers exposed to n-hexane in the shoe industry. Toxicol Lett 2004; 145:249-60. [PMID: 14580896 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4274(03)00302-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To analyse the role of total 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD) compared with free 2,5-HD as a biological indicator of exposure to n-hexane at work. METHODS One-hundred and thirty two workers in contact with this solvent during their occupation in the shoe industry in the province of Alicante (Spain) were studied. Environmental and biological tests were carried out analysing variations of the concentration of the metabolite in urine corresponding to different working conditions. Environmental exposure was evaluated in each work place using active personal monitors and measured by gas chromatography (GC). Dichloromethane extracts of the urine samples collected at the end of the working shifts were analysed, before (determining free 2,5-HD, the toxic metabolite) and after acid hydrolysis (pH 0.1) (yielding the total 2,5-HD) and also by GC. The concentration of conjugated metabolite 4,5-dihydroxy-2-hexanone was calculated from the difference between total and free 2,5-HD. RESULTS Free 2,5-HD represented an average of 14.2% of the total 2,5-HD determined in urine, and this percentage increased significantly (P<0.01) with higher environmental levels of acetone. Other factors, such as absorption through the skin (depending on the use of gloves) and the day on which samples were taken also significantly affected the relation between the two indicators and their respective relationships with environmental concentrations of n-hexane. CONCLUSION Although analyses of the relationship between the levels of atmospheric n-hexane and those of metabolites in urine show a greater correlation for total 2,5-HD than for free 2,5-HD, our results suggest that free 2,5-HD could be a better indicator in evaluating risk of exposure to n-hexane, since the concentration is directly related to the neurotoxic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Prieto
- Faculty of Medicine, Legal and Forensic Medicine Division, University of Miguel Hernández, Apdo Correos no 18, E-03550 San Juan, Alicante, Spain.
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Konidari C, Stalikas C, Karayannis M. Gas chromatographic method for the sensitive determination of 2,5-hexanedione using electron capture and mass-selective detection. Anal Chim Acta 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(01)01082-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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