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Kathar N, Rajput N, Jadav T, Sengupta P. Potential degradation products of abemaciclib: Identification and structural characterization employing LC-Q/TOF-MS and NMR including mechanistic explanation. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 237:115762. [PMID: 37844364 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Degradation products are the potential drug impurities that can be generated during transport and storage of pharmaceuticals. Before this study, degradation chemistry and potential degradation products of abemaciclib (ABM) were unknown. Moreover, no stability-indicating analytical method was available that can be used to analyse ABM in presence of its degradation products. In this study, stress testing on ABM was carried out under oxidative, thermal, photolytic (UV & visible), and hydrolytic (acid, alkaline, and neutral) degradation conditions. The study revealed that ABM is susceptible to photolytic, oxidative, and thermal stress leading to the formation of five degradation products (DPs). ABM and its degradation products were chromatographically separated employing a developed RP-HPLC-based stability-indicating analytical method. The method was transferred to an LC-Q-TOF system for further analysis. To elucidate the structure of degradation products, fragmentation pathway of ABM was initially established through high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Subsequently, mass fragmentation pathways of all the DPs have been established through HRMS and MSn based analysis. The major degradation product was isolated and fully characterized using atmospheric chemical ionization-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques. ABM showed extensive degradation under oxidative and photolytic systems. Therefore, special care may be sought during storage and transport of ABM or its formulations to avoid photolytic and oxidative stress exposure to the drug. Lastly, in silico toxicity of the characterized degradation products was assessed employing ProTox ІІ online web predictor freeware in which some of them were found to have the potential of hepatotoxicity, immunogenicity and mutagenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nachiket Kathar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A), An Institute of National Importance, Government of India, Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Opp. Airforce Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar 382355, Gujarat, India
| | - Niraj Rajput
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A), An Institute of National Importance, Government of India, Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Opp. Airforce Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar 382355, Gujarat, India
| | - Tarang Jadav
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A), An Institute of National Importance, Government of India, Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Opp. Airforce Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar 382355, Gujarat, India
| | - Pinaki Sengupta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad (NIPER-A), An Institute of National Importance, Government of India, Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, Opp. Airforce Station, Palaj, Gandhinagar 382355, Gujarat, India.
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2
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Regalado-Méndez A, Zavaleta-Avendaño J, Peralta-Reyes E, Natividad R. Convex optimization for maximizing the degradation efficiency of chloroquine in a flow-by electrochemical reactor. J Solid State Electrochem 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37363394 PMCID: PMC10088624 DOI: 10.1007/s10008-023-05452-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
The degradation efficiency of chloroquine phosphate (CQ), an anti-COVID-19 drug, was investigated in a flow-by electrochemical reactor (FBER) provided with two boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes (as cathode and anode) under batch recirculation mode. A central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was run down to model and assess the influence of initial pH in an interval of 3.71 to 11.28, the current density in an interval of 34.32 to 185.68 mA cm-2, and liquid volumetric flow rate in an interval of 0.58 to 1.42 L min-1, and conduct the convex optimization to obtain the maximum degradation efficiency. Experimental results were modeled through a second-order polynomial equation having a determination coefficient (R2) of 0.9705 with a variance coefficient of 1.1%. Optimal operating conditions found (initial pH of 5.38, current density (j) of 34.4 mA cm-2, and liquid flow rate (Q) of 1.42 L min-1) led to a global maximum degradation efficiency, COD removal efficiency, and mineralization efficiency of 89.3, 51.6 and 53.1%, respectively, with an energy consumption of 0.041 kWh L-1 within 9 h of treatment. Additionally, a pseudo-zero-order kinetic model was demonstrated to fit the experimental data and the calculated pseudo-zero-order kinetic constant (kapp) was 13.14 mg L-1 h-1 (2.54 × 10-5 mol dm-3 h-1). Furthermore, the total operating cost was of 0.47 US$ L-1. Finally, this research could be helpful for the treatment of wastewater containing an anti-COVID-19 drug such as CQ. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10008-023-05452-7.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ever Peralta-Reyes
- Investigation Laboratories, Universidad del Mar, Puerto Ángel, 70902 Oaxaca, México
| | - Reyna Natividad
- Chemical Engineering Laboratory, Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable, UAEMex-UNAM, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Estado de México, Toluca, 50200 México
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3
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Hu J, Hellgeth N, Cabay C, Clark J, Oliaro FJ, Van Bonn W, Hartmann EM. Towards understanding microbial degradation of chloroquine in large saltwater systems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 807:150532. [PMID: 34606868 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Circulating saltwater aquariums hosting marine animals contain a wide range of microorganisms, which have strong implications on promoting animal health. In this study, we investigated the degradation of chloroquine phosphate, an anti-parasitic bath pharmaceutical used in saltwater quarantine and exhibition systems, and attributed the reduction in drug concentration to microbial degradation of chloroquine associated with pipeline microbial communities. To advance our knowledge on chloroquine degradation in aquatic systems, we conducted microbial and chemical analyses on three tropical saltwater systems. Our findings show that aquarium microbiome composition is shaped by sampling location (i.e., tank water and pipeline; PERMANOVA R2 = 0.09992, p = 0.0134), chloroquine dosing (PERMANOVA R2 = 0.05700, p = 0.0030), and whether the aquarium is occupied by marine animals (PERMANOVA R2 = 0.07019, p = 0.0009). Several microbial taxa belonging to the phyla Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, and Proteobacteria, along with functional genes related to pathways such as phenylethylamine degradation and denitrification, appeared to have differential (relative) abundance between samples where chloroquine degradation was observed and those without degradation (Benjamini-Hochberg adjusted p-value <0.05). Together, these results provide practical mitigation options to prevent or delay the development of chloroquine-degrading microbial communities in saltwater aquariums. Our results further demonstrate the need to improve our understanding of the interactions between nitrogen availability and microbial activity in saltwater systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglin Hu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Nancy Hellgeth
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Chrissy Cabay
- Animal Care and Science Division, John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - James Clark
- Animal Care and Science Division, John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Francis J Oliaro
- Animal Care and Science Division, John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - William Van Bonn
- Animal Care and Science Division, John G. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Erica M Hartmann
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
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Dong F, Li J, Lin Q, Wang D, Li C, Shen Y, Zeng T, Song S. Oxidation of chloroquine drug by ferrate: Kinetics, reaction mechanism and antibacterial activity. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JOURNAL (LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND : 1996) 2022; 428:131408. [PMID: 36570598 PMCID: PMC9760377 DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.131408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Chloroquine (CLQ) is required to manufacture on a larger scale to combat COVID-19. The wastewater containing CLQ will be discharged into the natural water, which was resistant to environmental degradation. Herein, the degradation of CLQ by ferrate (Fe(VI)) was investigated, and the biodegradability of the oxidation products was examined to evaluate the potential application in natural water treatment. The reaction between CLQ and Fe(VI) was pH-dependent and followed second-order kinetics. The species-specific rate constant of protonated Fe(VI) species (HFeO4 -) was higher than that of the FeO4 2- species. Moreover, increasing the reaction temperature could increase the degradation rate of CLQ. Besides, HCO3 - had positive effect on CLQ removal, while HA had negative effect on CLQ removal. But the experiments shows Fe(VI) could be used as an efficient technique to degrade co-existing CLQ in natural waters. During the oxidation, Fe(VI) attack could lead to aromatic ring dealkylation and chloride ion substitution to form seven intermediate products by liquid chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) determination. Finally, a pure culture test showed that the oxidation of CLQ by Fe(VI) could slightly increase the antimicrobial effect towards Escherichia coli (E.coli) and reduce the toxicity risk of intermediates. These findings might provide helpful information for the environmental elimination of CLQ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feilong Dong
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Jinzhe Li
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Qiufeng Lin
- Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ 07043, United States
| | - Da Wang
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Cong Li
- School of Environment and Architecture, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Yi Shen
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Tao Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Shuang Song
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
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Gwenzi W, Selvasembian R, Offiong NAO, Mahmoud AED, Sanganyado E, Mal J. COVID-19 drugs in aquatic systems: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS 2022; 20:1275-1294. [PMID: 35069060 PMCID: PMC8760103 DOI: 10.1007/s10311-021-01356-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The outbreak of the human coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has induced an unprecedented increase in the use of several old and repurposed therapeutic drugs such as veterinary medicines, e.g. ivermectin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, protein and peptide therapeutics, disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and antimalarial drugs, antiretrovirals, analgesics, and supporting agents, e.g. azithromycin and corticosteroids. Excretion of drugs and their metabolites in stools and urine release these drugs into wastewater, and ultimately into surface waters and groundwater systems. Here, we review the sources, behaviour, environmental fate, risks, and remediation of those drugs. We discuss drug transformation in aquatic environments and in wastewater treatment systems. Degradation mechanisms and metabolite toxicity are poorly known. Potential risks include endocrine disruption, acute and chronic toxicity, disruption of ecosystem functions and trophic interactions in aquatic organisms, and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willis Gwenzi
- Biosystems and Environmental Engineering Research Group, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Environment and Food Systems, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu 613401 India
| | - Nnanake-Abasi O. Offiong
- International Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability Research (ICEESR), University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Computing and Applied Sciences, Topfaith University, Mkpatak, Nigeria
| | - Alaa El Din Mahmoud
- Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21511 Egypt
- Green Technology Group, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, 21511 Egypt
| | - Edmond Sanganyado
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063 China
| | - Joyabrata Mal
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh India
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6
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Albornoz LL, Soroka VD, Silva MCA. Photo-mediated and advanced oxidative processes applied for the treatment of effluents with drugs used for the treatment of early COVID-19: Review. ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANCES 2021; 6:100140. [PMID: 34845441 PMCID: PMC8603826 DOI: 10.1016/j.envadv.2021.100140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is proving to be one of the most challenging health and social crises ever faced by humanity. Several drugs have been proposed as potential antiviral agents for the treatment of COVID-19 since the beginning of the health crisis. Among them are chloroquine (CQ), hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), ivermectin (IVM), and the combination of QC or HCQ and azithromycin (AZI). The use of these and several other drugs has grown sharply, even if there is proof of ineffectiveness in the early treatment or mild cases of COVID-19. Thus, there is great concern about the potential environmental impacts of the effluents released with the presence of these drugs. Therefore, this work aimed to carry out a literature review on wastewater treatment processes, focusing on removing these substances through advanced oxidation process. As the conventional effluent treatment processes do not have high efficiency for removal, it was concentrated in the literature that had as scope advanced and photo-mediated techniques to remove CQ, HCQ, IVM, and AZI. It is expected, with this work, to highlight the importance of conducting research that contributes to the control of pollution and contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Albornoz
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - V D Soroka
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - M C A Silva
- UFRGS, Instituto de Pesquisas Hidráulicas (IPH), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Recursos Hídricos e Saneamento Ambiental, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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7
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Hernandes IS, Da Silva HC, Dos Santos HF, De Almeida WB. Unveiling the Molecular Structure of Antimalarial Drugs Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine in Solution through Analysis of 1H NMR Chemical Shifts. J Phys Chem B 2021; 125:3321-3342. [PMID: 33760611 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.1c00609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) have been standard antimalarial drugs since the early 1950s, and very recently, the possibility of their use for the treatment of COVID-19 patients has been considered. To understand the drug mode of action at the submicroscopic level (atoms and molecules), molecular modeling studies with the aid of computational chemistry methods have been of great help. A fundamental step in such theoretical investigations is the knowledge of the predominant drug molecular structure in solution, which is the real environment for the interaction with biological targets. Our strategy to access this valuable information is to perform density functional theory (DFT) calculations of 1H NMR chemical shifts for several plausible molecular conformers and then find the best match with experimental NMR profile in solution (since it is extremely sensitive to conformational changes). Through this procedure, after optimizing 30 trial distinct molecular structures (ωB97x-D/6-31G(d,p)-PCM level of calculation), which may be considered representative conformations, we concluded that the global minimum (named M24), stabilized by an intramolecular N-H hydrogen bond, is not likely to be observed in water, chloroform, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) solution. Among fully optimized conformations (named M1 to M30, and MD1 and MD2), we found M12 (having no intramolecular H-bond) as the most probable structure of CQ and HCQ in water solution, which is a good approximate starting geometry in drug-receptor interaction simulations. On the other hand, the preferred CQ and HCQ structure in chloroform (and CQ in DMSO-d6) solution was assigned as M8, showing the solvent effects on conformational preferences. We believe that the analysis of 1H NMR data in solution can establish the connection between the macro level (experimental) and the sub-micro level (theoretical), which is not so apparent to us and appears to be more appropriate than the thermodynamic stability criterion in conformational analysis studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel S Hernandes
- Laboratório de Química Computacional e Modelagem Molecular (LQC-MM), Departamento de Química Inorgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Outeiro de São João Batista s/n, Campus do Valonguinho, Centro, Niterói 24020-141, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Haroldo C Da Silva
- Laboratório de Química Computacional e Modelagem Molecular (LQC-MM), Departamento de Química Inorgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Outeiro de São João Batista s/n, Campus do Valonguinho, Centro, Niterói 24020-141, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Hélio F Dos Santos
- Núcleo de Estudos em Química Computacional (NEQC), Departamento de Química, ICE, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Campus Universitário, Martelos, Juiz de Fora 36036-330, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Wagner B De Almeida
- Laboratório de Química Computacional e Modelagem Molecular (LQC-MM), Departamento de Química Inorgânica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Outeiro de São João Batista s/n, Campus do Valonguinho, Centro, Niterói 24020-141, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Midassi S, Bedoui A, Bensalah N. Efficient degradation of chloroquine drug by electro-Fenton oxidation: Effects of operating conditions and degradation mechanism. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 260:127558. [PMID: 32693256 PMCID: PMC7351021 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the degradation of chloroquine (CLQ), an antiviral and antimalarial drug, using electro-Fenton oxidation was investigated. Due to the importance of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) generation during electro-Fenton oxidation, effects of pH, current density, molecular oxygen (O2) flow rate, and anode material on H2O2 generation were evaluated. H2O2 generation was enhanced by increasing the current density up to 60 mA/cm2 and the O2 flow rate up to 80 mL/min at pH 3.0 and using carbon felt cathode and boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode. Electro-Fenton-BDD oxidation achieved the total CLQ depletion and 92% total organic carbon (TOC) removal. Electro-Fenton-BDD oxidation was more effective than electro-Fenton-Pt and anodic oxidation using Pt and BDD anodes. The efficiency of CLQ depletion by electro-Fenton-BDD oxidation raises by increasing the current density and Fe2+ dose; however it drops with the increase of pH and CLQ concentration. CLQ depletion follows a pseudo-first order kinetics in all the experiments. The identification of CLQ degradation intermediates by chromatography methods confirms the formation of 7-chloro-4-quinolinamine, oxamic, and oxalic acids. Quantitative amounts of chlorides, nitrates, and ammonium ions are released during electro-Fenton oxidation of CLQ. The high efficiency of electro-Fenton oxidation derives from the generation of hydroxyl radicals from the catalytic decomposition of H2O2 by Fe2+ in solution, and the electrogeneration of hydroxyl and sulfates radicals and other strong oxidants (persulfates) from the oxidation of the electrolyte at the surface BDD anode. Electro-Fenton oxidation has the potential to be an alternative method for treating wastewaters contaminated with CLQ and its derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sondos Midassi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes, 6072, Tunisia
| | - Ahmed Bedoui
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes, 6072, Tunisia
| | - Nasr Bensalah
- Department of Chemistry and Earth Sciences, College of Arts and Science, Qatar University, PO Box 2713, Doha, Qatar.
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Janga KY, King T, Ji N, Sarabu S, Shadambikar G, Sawant S, Xu P, Repka MA, Murthy SN. Photostability Issues in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Photostabilization. AAPS PharmSciTech 2018; 19:48-59. [PMID: 28905241 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-017-0869-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodegradation is one of the major pathways of the degradation of drugs. Some therapeutic agents and excipients are highly sensitive to light and undergo significant degradation, challenging the quality and the stability of the final product. The adequate knowledge of photodegradation mechanisms and kinetics of photosensitive therapeutic entities or excipients is a pivotal aspect in the product development phase. Hence, various pharmaceutical regulatory agencies, across the world, mandated the industries to assess the photodegradation of pharmaceutical products from manufacturing stage till storage, as per the guidelines given in the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH). Recently, numerous formulation and/or manufacturing strategies has been investigated for preventing the photodegradation and enhancing the photostability of photolabile components in the pharmaceutical dosage forms. The primary focus of this review is to discuss various photodegradation mechanisms, rate kinetics, and the factors that influence the rate of photodegradation. We also discuss light-induced degradation of photosensitive lipids and polymers. We conclude with a brief note on different approaches to improve the photostability of photosensitive products.
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Coelho AS, Chagas CEP, de Pádua RM, Pianetti GA, Fernandes C. A comprehensive stability-indicating HPLC method for determination of chloroquine in active pharmaceutical ingredient and tablets: Identification of oxidation impurities. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2017; 145:248-254. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2017.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Trawiński J, Skibiński R. Studies on photodegradation process of psychotropic drugs: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:1152-1199. [PMID: 27696160 PMCID: PMC5306312 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7727-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of psychotropic drugs is still increasing, especially in high-income countries. One of the most crucial consequences of this fact is significant release of them to the environment. Considerable amounts of atypical antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and their metabolites were detected in river, lake, and sea water, as well as in tissues of aquatic organisms. Their ecotoxicity was proved by numerous studies. It should be noticed that interaction between psychotropic pharmaceuticals and radiation may lead to formation of potentially more toxic intermediates. On the other hand, photo-assisted wastewater treatment methods can be used as an efficient way to eliminate them from the environment. Many methods based on photolysis and photocatalysis were proposed and developed recently; nevertheless, the problem is still unsolved. However, according to recent studies, photocatalysis could be considered as the most promising and far more effective than regular photolysis. An overview on photolytic as well as homogenous and heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation methods with the use of various catalysts is presented. The photostability and phototoxicity of pharmaceuticals were also discussed. Various analytical methods were used for the photodegradation research, and this issue was also compared and summarized. Use of high-resolution multistage mass spectrometry (Q-TOF, ion trap, Orbitrap) was suggested. The combined techniques such as LC-MS, GC-MS, and LC-NMR, which enable qualitative and quantitative analyses in one run, proved to be the most valuable in this case. Assembling of MS/MS spectra libraries of drug molecules and their phototransformation products was identified as the future challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Trawiński
- Department of Medicinal, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Robert Skibiński
- Department of Medicinal, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 4, 20-090, Lublin, Poland
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12
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Doddaga S, Peddakonda R. Chloroquine-N-oxide, a major oxidative degradation product of chloroquine: identification, synthesis and characterization. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2013; 81-82:118-25. [PMID: 23644906 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 04/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Chloroquine (CQ) (1) which has endured as one of the most powerful antimalarial drugs was subjected to oxidative stress conditions and the degradation profile was studied. The oxidative stress condition of CQ furnished one major degradation product along with other minor degradation products. The unknown major degradation product was identified in HPLC and pure impurity was isolated using column chromatography. The structure of this major product was elucidated using UV, FT-IR, (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, 2D NMR (HSQC) and mass spectral data. Based on the results obtained from the different spectroscopic studies, it was confirmed that the N-oxide was formed at the tertiary amine nitrogen instead of the pyridine nitrogen. Subsequently, an efficient and simple synthetic approach was developed for the synthesis of chloroquine-N-oxide using a work-up procedure that does not require chromatography techniques for further purification. It was observed that the spectral data of the isolated degradation product coincided appropriately with the synthesized product spectral data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasulu Doddaga
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 517 502, India.
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14
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Rivas-Granizo P, Jorge Santos SRC, Ferraz HG. Development of a Stability-Indicating LC Assay Method for Determination of Chloroquine. Chromatographia 2009. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-009-0985-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Solvent effects on reactions of singlet molecular oxygen, O2(1Δg), with antimalarial drugs. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2004.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Spikes JD. Photosensitizing properties of quinine and synthetic antimalarials. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1998; 42:1-11. [PMID: 9491591 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(97)00087-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Quinine, an alkaloid that occurs in the bark of trees of the genus Cinchona, has been used for the treatment of malaria in humans for over 150 years. In 1888 it was reported that quinine was more toxic to plant tissues and frog eggs in the light than in the dark; thus it is probably one of the first pure compounds shown to be a photosensitizer for biological systems. During this century, because of the toxic side effects of quinine and the appearance of quinine-resistant malarial strains, a search was begun to identify synthetic antimalarial compounds with improved properties. A number have been identified and are now in widespread use; but like quinine, most of these are also photosensitizers. Because of the very large numbers of patients receiving antimalarials, many studies have been made of the photophysical, photochemical and photosensitizing properties of quinine and several of the most commonly used synthetic antimalarials (chloroquine, primaquine, quinacrine and mefloquine). The results of these studies are summarized in this review. Most antimalarials photosensitize in part by the generation of singlet oxygen, although free radical pathways may also be involved. The carcinogenic and photocarcinogenic properties of antimalarials and related compounds are briefly surveyed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Spikes
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City 84112, USA.
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Nord K, Karlsen J, Tosnnesen HW. PHOTOCHEMICAL STABILITY OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE COMPOUNDS. IX. CHARACTERIZATION OF THE SPECTROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF THE 4-AMINOQUINOLINES, CHLOROQUINE AND HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE, AND OF SELECTED METABOLITES BY ABSORPTION, FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE MEASUREMENTS. Photochem Photobiol 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1994.tb05128.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Kristensen S, Orsteen AL, Sande SA, Tønnesen HH. Photoreactivity of biologically active compounds. VII. Interaction of antimalarial drugs with melanin in vitro as part of phototoxicity screening. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1994; 26:87-95. [PMID: 7799140 DOI: 10.1016/1011-1344(94)85039-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The drugs commonly used in the treatment of malaria are photochemically unstable. Several of these compounds accumulate in melanin-rich tissues and cause toxic reactions which may be light induced. As part of the screening of the photochemical properties and phototoxic capabilities of antimalarials, the in vitro interaction of eight antimalarials with melanin was studied. The dissociation constant for the drug-melanin complex and the relative number of binding sites on melanin were estimated for six of the drugs using a curve-fitting program. The reaction rate for the formation of the melanin-drug complex was determined, and the complexes were further characterized by zeta potential measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kristensen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Oslo, Blindern, Norway
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Kristensen S, Grislingaas AL, Greenhill JV, Skjetne T, Karlsen J, Tønnesen HH. Photochemical stability of biologically active compounds: V. Photochemical degradation of primaquine in an aqueous medium. Int J Pharm 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0378-5173(93)90070-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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