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Iyer J, Brunsteiner M, Modhave D, Paudel A. Role of Crystal Disorder and Mechanoactivation in Solid-State Stability of Pharmaceuticals. J Pharm Sci 2023; 112:1539-1565. [PMID: 36842482 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2023.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
Abstract
Common energy-intensive processes applied in oral solid dosage development, such as milling, sieving, blending, compaction, etc. generate particles with surface and bulk crystal disorder. An intriguing aspect of the generated crystal disorder is its evolution and repercussion on the physical- and chemical stabilities of drugs. In this review, we firstly examine the existing literature on crystal disorder and its implications on solid-state stability of pharmaceuticals. Secondly, we discuss the key aspects related to the generation and evolution of crystal disorder, dynamics of the disordered/amorphous phase, analytical techniques to measure/quantify them, and approaches to model the disordering propensity from first principles. The main objective of this compilation is to provide special impetus to predict or model the chemical degradation(s) resulting from processing-induced manifestation in bulk solid manufacturing. Finally, a generic workflow is proposed that can be useful to investigate the relevance of crystal disorder on the degradation of pharmaceuticals during stability studies. The present review will cater to the requirements for developing physically- and chemically stable drugs, thereby enabling early and rational decision-making during candidate screening and in assessing degradation risks associated with formulations and processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayant Iyer
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), Graz, Austria
| | | | - Dattatray Modhave
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), Graz, Austria
| | - Amrit Paudel
- Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH (RCPE), Graz, Austria; Graz University of Technology, Institute of Process and Particle Engineering, Graz Austria.
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2
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Understanding pharmaceutical polymorphic transformations I: influence of process variables and storage conditions. Ther Deliv 2015; 5:1123-42. [PMID: 25418270 DOI: 10.4155/tde.14.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) of a dosage form is affected by number of mechanical and environmental factors which have a tendency to alter its crystalline state. Polymorphic transitions have been observed to occur during various unit operations like granulation, milling and compression. Forces of pressure, shear and temperature have an ability to induce alterations in crystal habit. A conversion in polymorphic form during a unit operation is very likely to affect the handling of API in the subsequent unit operation. Transitions have also been observed during storage of formulations where the relative humidity and temperature play a major role. An increase in temperature during storage can dehydrate or desolvate the crystal and hence produce crystal defects, whilst, high humidity conditions produce higher molecular mobility leading to either crystallization of API or alteration of its crystalline form.
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Schrank S, Kann B, Saurugger E, Ehmann H, Werzer O, Windbergs M, Glasser BJ, Zimmer A, Khinast J, Roblegg E. Impact of drying on solid state modifications and drug distribution in ibuprofen-loaded calcium stearate pellets. Mol Pharm 2014; 11:599-609. [PMID: 24400735 DOI: 10.1021/mp4005782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Drying is a common pharmaceutical process, whose potential to alter the final drug properties-even at relatively low temperatures-is often neglected. The present study addresses the impact of drying at 20 and 50 °C on wet-extruded calcium stearate (CaSt) pellets. Drying at 20 °C caused the majority of ibuprofen to accumulate at the pellet surface due to a strong convective flow from the pellet's center to the surface. In contrast, pellets dried at 50 °C still contained ibuprofen in the pellet's interior due to the higher drying rate and the associated film breakage during drying. Moreover, the higher drying temperature caused CaSt to form a second lamellar phase and ibuprofen to convert (partly) into its amorphous state. Overall, the drying process affected the solid state and the spatial ibuprofen distribution within the pellet. Knowledge of these effects can aid in tailoring advanced multipellet formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Schrank
- Institute for Process and Particle Engineering, Graz University of Technology , Inffeldgasse 13/3, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Varughese S, Kiran MSRN, Ramamurty U, Desiraju GR. Nanoindentation im Kristall-Engineering: Quantifizierung mechanischer Eigenschaften von Molekülkristallen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201205002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Varughese S, Kiran MSRN, Ramamurty U, Desiraju GR. Nanoindentation in crystal engineering: quantifying mechanical properties of molecular crystals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:2701-12. [PMID: 23315913 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201205002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Nanoindentation is a technique for measuring the elastic modulus and hardness of small amounts of materials. This method, which has been used extensively for characterizing metallic and inorganic solids, is now being applied to organic and metal-organic crystals, and has also become relevant to the subject of crystal engineering, which is concerned with the design of molecular solids with desired properties and functions. Through nanoindentation it is possible to correlate molecular-level properties such as crystal packing, interaction characteristics, and the inherent anisotropy with micro/macroscopic events such as desolvation, domain coexistence, layer migration, polymorphism, and solid-state reactivity. Recent developments and exciting opportunities in this area are highlighted in this Minireview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Varughese
- Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
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6
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Song JS, Sohn YT. Solid state of aceclofenac: characterization, transformation. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-012-0022-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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7
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Martins D, Sanselme M, Houssin O, Dupray V, Petit MN, Pasquier D, Diolez C, Coquerel G. Physical transformations of the active pharmaceutical ingredient BN83495: enantiotropic and monotropic relationships. Access to several polymorphic forms by using various solvation–desolvation processes. CrystEngComm 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2ce06537a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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9
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Tian F, Qu H, Zimmermann A, Munk T, Jørgensen AC, Rantanen J. Factors affecting crystallization of hydrates. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 62:1534-46. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2010.01186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
To provide a comprehensive understanding of the competing thermodynamic and kinetic factors governing the crystallization of various hydrate systems. The ultimate goal is to utilize this understanding to improve the control over the unit operations involving hydrate formation, as well as to optimize the bioavailability of a given drug product.
Key findings
The thermodynamic and kinetic factors that govern hydrate crystallization are introduced and the current status of the endeavour to gain a mechanistic understanding of the phenomena that occur during the crystallization of different hydrate systems is discussed. The importance of hydrate investigation in the pharmaceutical field is exemplified by examining two specific hydrate systems: the polymorphic hydrate system and hydrates of pharmaceutical salts.
Summary
This review identifies the factors that are of critical importance in the investigation of anhydrate/hydrate systems. This knowledge can be used to control the phase transformation during pharmaceutical processing and storage, as well as in building a desired functionality for the final formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Tian
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Haiyan Qu
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Institute of Chemical Engineering, Biotechnology and Environmental Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University of Southern Denmark, Niels Bohrs Allé 1, Odense M, Denmark
| | | | - Tommy Munk
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Jukka Rantanen
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Jørgensen AC, Strachan CJ, Pöllänen KH, Koradia V, Tian F, Rantanen J. An insight into water of crystallization during processing using vibrational spectroscopy. J Pharm Sci 2010; 98:3903-32. [PMID: 19670461 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Many organic molecules used as drugs can incorporate water into their crystal lattice. These compounds are also prone to processing-induced transformations (PITs) because processing often exposes the compounds to moisture, heat and mechanical stress. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the possibilities for following and understanding hydrate/anhydrate transformations using vibrational spectroscopy (mid-infrared, near-infrared, Raman and terahertz). The review begins with a general section on hydrates, followed by considerations on the impact of these on drug products and a description of transformation mechanisms of hydrates. Moreover, a general introduction is given for the spectroscopic techniques together with a discussion of critical issues for quantification models. Unit operations that may induce transformations in hydrate systems are discussed with focus on the published work on the use of spectroscopy to derive information from these processes. Finally, the effect of excipients on PITs is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Cecilia Jørgensen
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutics and Analytical Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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11
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Li H, Stowell JG, He X, Morris KR, Byrn SR. Investigations on Solid–Solid Phase Transformation of 5-Methyl-2-[(4-Methyl-2-Nitrophenyl)Amino]-3- Thiophenecarbonitrile. J Pharm Sci 2007; 96:1079-89. [PMID: 17455331 DOI: 10.1002/jps.20937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Solid-solid transformation of 5-methyl-2-[(4-methyl-2-nitrophenyl)amino]-3-thiophenecarbonitrile from the dark-red to the red form was investigated. By controlled crystallization, the dark-red form was prepared and the crystals were sieved into fractions: coarse (>250 microm), medium (125-177 microm), and fine (<88 microm). The transformation rate order (fastest to slowest) of the different fractions is coarse > medium > fine. However, milling accelerates the transformation, that is, smaller particles generated by milling transforms faster. Furthermore, ethanol vapor annealing slows both the transformation of the coarse and medium fractions, especially the latter. Therefore, the mechanism of transformation is not directly related to the crystal-size and most likely related to the amount and activity of the defects in the crystals. The three-dimensional (3-D) Avrami-Erofe'ev model, know as "random nucleation and growth" model, fits the kinetics of coarse fraction best. Higher relative humidity accelerates the transformation dramatically even though the compound is highly-hydrophobic. With minimal hydrogen bonding interaction involved, it appears even small amounts of water can serve as a nucleation catalyst by binding to the crystal surface, especially at defect sites, thus increasing the molecular mobility of these sites, promoting the transformation to the second phase and thereby increasing the transformation rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2091, USA.
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Tantry JS, Tank J, Suryanarayanan R. Processing-Induced Phase Transitions of Theophylline—Implications on the Dissolution of Theophylline Tablets. J Pharm Sci 2007; 96:1434-44. [PMID: 17455350 DOI: 10.1002/jps.20746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Aqueous wet massing of stable anhydrous theophylline (A) with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) resulted in its complete transformation to theophylline monohydrate (M). Drying at 45 degrees C, resulted in the formation of metastable anhydrous theophylline (A*) which then transformed to A. PVP, a known crystallization inhibitor, was effective in inhibiting the A* --> A transition. The higher molecular weight polymer, PVP K90, was more effective in inhibiting the A* --> A transition as compared to PVP K17. The disappearance of M, and the formation of A* and A was simultaneously monitored by XRD. An increase in the drying temperature from 45 to 55 degrees C accelerated the A* --> A transition. In granules prepared by the high-shear process, approximately 50% of theophylline existed as A and the rest as A*. In contrast, the fluid-bed granulation process yielded granules containing only A. Thus, the physical form of theophylline in tablets was influenced by the molecular weight of the binding agent, the granulation method, and the drying temperature. Using A as the starting material, tablets were manufactured by high-shear aqueous wet granulation process and the A* content was quantified. These tablets were stored under various relative humidity (RH) conditions at 25 degrees C for 2 weeks. Storage at RH >or= 33% caused complete A* --> A conversion accompanied by a pronounced decrease in the initial dissolution rate indicating that phase transitions during processing and storage can have a significant influence on product performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaidev S Tantry
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
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Heng PWS, Chan LW, Liew CV, Chee SN, Soh JLP, Ooi SM. Roller Compaction of Crude Plant Material: Influence of Process Variables, Polyvinylpyrrolidone, and Co‐milling. Pharm Dev Technol 2004; 9:135-44. [PMID: 15202572 DOI: 10.1081/pdt-120027425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Roller compaction of a milled botanical (Baphicacanthus cusia) with and without a binder, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was conducted. Effects of co-milling on binder function and flowability of the powder blend was also investigated. Flakes were comminuted, and the size and size distribution, friability, Hausner ratio, and Carr index of the granulations were determined. Crude herb should be reduced to a suitable size for it to be successfully roller compacted. Larger-sized and less friable granules were obtained with decreasing roller speed. Addition of PVP affected the flowability and binding capacity of the herbal powder blend, which influenced size and friability of the granules. Co-milling of PVP with the herbal powder enhanced the flow of the blends and the effectiveness of the binder, which contributed favorably to the roller-compacted product. Roller compaction is a convenient and cost-effective granulating technique suitable for milled botanicals. Co-milling can be used to improve the properties of roller-compacted products.
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Affiliation(s)
- P W S Heng
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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14
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Datta S, Grant DJW. Crystal structures of drugs: advances in determination, prediction and engineering. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2004; 3:42-57. [PMID: 14708020 DOI: 10.1038/nrd1280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sharmistha Datta
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Weaver-Densford Hall, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0343, USA
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15
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Morris KR, Griesser UJ, Eckhardt CJ, Stowell JG. Theoretical approaches to physical transformations of active pharmaceutical ingredients during manufacturing processes. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2001; 48:91-114. [PMID: 11325478 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-409x(01)00100-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Processing-induced transformations (PITs) during pharmaceutical manufacturing are well known but difficult to predict and often difficult to control. This review of the concepts of transformations is couched in terms of the issues associated with identifying rate-controlling events from the materials side and the processing side. Specifically, the approach is reconciling the characteristic time scale of the structural change(s) in the material with the time scale of the processing-induced stress. This is definitely a model (or rather a melding of a group of existing theories) in development. This overview is a 'snapshot' of the authors' attempts to identify the categories of existing theories needed to encompass all of the relevant events for each possible PIT. The ultimate goal is to establish a framework of concepts and theories for consideration, discussion, and modeling of PITs as well as to locate much of the relevant literature in the framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- K R Morris
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1336, USA.
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16
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Suihko E, Lehto VP, Ketolainen J, Laine E, Paronen P. Dynamic solid-state and tableting properties of four theophylline forms. Int J Pharm 2001; 217:225-36. [PMID: 11292558 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-5173(01)00607-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Relationships between solid-state, densification and compact properties of theophylline monohydrate (TMO), a mixture of forms (TMIX), and anhydrous polymorphs I (TA-I) and II (TA-II) were evaluated. Solid-state identification of powders and compacts was accomplished by powder X-ray diffraction. A compaction simulator was used to assess deformation behaviour of the powders and to prepare compacts. Porosity and tensile strength of the compacts were determined after 1,24, and 168 h of storage at 22% relative humidity. TA-II was stable, whereas TA-I, TMIX and TMO partially transformed to the TA-II form during storage. All theophylline modifications primarily deformed by plastic flow. Increased water content decreased resistance towards densification and deformation of TMIX and TMO when compared to TA-II or TA-I, demonstrating viscoelasticity. Permanent densification behaviours of TMIX and TMO approached to that of TA-II during storage. Tensile strength of the different theophylline forms were practically equal after 1 h of storage. Tensile strength and porosity of TMIX and TMO compacts increased during the storage. Dynamic solid-state transformations from TMO, TMIX and TA-I to TA-II were associated with parallel changes in their densification and compact properties. The extent of these changes was also dependent on the materials' water content.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Suihko
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Kuopio, PO Box 1627, FIN-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
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