Explorations of close friendship: a concept analysis

The scaling of social interactions across animal species

Social animals self-organise to create groups to increase protection against predators and productivity. One-to-one interactions are the building blocks of these emergent social structures and may correspond to friendship, grooming, communication, among other social relations. These structures should be robust to failures and provide efficient communication to compensate the costs of forming and maintaining the social contacts but the specific purpose of each social interaction regulates the evolution of the respective social networks. We collate 611 animal social networks and show that the number of social contacts E scales with group size N as a super-linear power-law [Formula: see text] for various species of animals, including humans, other mammals and non-mammals. We identify that the power-law exponent [Formula: see text] varies according to the social function of the interactions as [Formula: see text], with [Formula: see text]. By fitting a multi-layer model to our data, we observe that the cost to cross social groups also varies according to social function. Relatively low costs are observed for physical contact, grooming and group membership which lead to small groups with high and constant social clustering. Offline friendship has similar patterns while online friendship shows weak social structures. The intermediate case of spatial proximity (with [Formula: see text] and clustering dependency on network size quantitatively similar to friendship) suggests that proximity interactions may be as relevant for the spread of infectious diseases as for social processes like friendship.

Measuring Group Process in Nurse-Facilitated Support Groups for Psychosocial Club Members

Nearly half of patients with serious mental illness (SMI) lack friends and social connectedness-building blocks of recovery. While support groups have been found to promote friendship-building, there is little information about the process. This study examined the use of nurse-facilitated support groups by Psychosocial club members with SMI. Participation, core members, therapeutic factors, content discussed, and satisfaction with the intervention were measured. Perception of unmet need for a friend and membership in a group was measured before and after the intervention. Participation increased over time. Core members emerged. Yalom's therapeutic factors evolved. Discussion included sexually transmitted diseases, safety, making friends, health problems, problems with landlords, and adverse events such as victimization. The unmet need for a friend decreased. Two-thirds were satisfied with the groups. Support groups are low-cost psychosocial interventions that can be used to help patients with SMI move toward recovery.

A concept analysis of adolescent friendship

AIM

The purpose of this study is to provide a definition of adolescent friendship to aid in nursing research and practice.

BACKGROUND

Friendships are an essential part of adolescence and can have significant impacts on health outcomes. Adolescent friendships are associated with decreased depression, suicidal ideation, anxiety, and improved self-management of chronic conditions. However, the concept of friendship has not been well defined in the nursing literature, especially in the context of adolescents.

DESIGN

Walker and Avant's method of concept analysis was used as a framework for this analysis.

DATA SOURCES

Seventeen articles were reviewed, representing a variety of disciplines including child development, psychology, sociology, behavioral sciences, medicine, education, public health, and nutrition. Additional sources included online definitions of friendship.

REVIEW METHODS

After reviewing the sources, the author identified attributes, antecedents, and consequences. Model case, a borderline case, and contrary case were developed and empirical referents identified.

RESULTS

The analysis resulted in a clear definition of adolescent friendship, containing the attributes of support, intimacy, affection, trust, ability to manage conflict, and time.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the attributes, antecedents, and consequences of adolescent friendships will help nurses in assessing and supporting these influential relationships during this important development period.

Social-Interaction Knowledge Translation for In-Home Management of Urinary Incontinence and Chronic Care

Although urinary incontinence (UI) can be managed conservatively, it is a principal reason for the breakdown of in-home family care. This study explored the social interaction processes of knowledge translation (KT) related to how UI management knowledge might be translated within in-home care. In-depth interview data were collected from a theoretical sample of 23 family caregivers, older home care recipients, and home care providers. Constant comparison and Glaser’s analysis criteria were used to create translating knowledge through relating , a substantive theory with 10 subthemes: living with the problem; building experiential knowledge; developing comfort; easing into a working relationship; nurturing mutuality; facilitating knowledge exchange; building confidence; fi ne-tuning knowledge; putting it all together; and managing in-home care. Findings inform both theory and practice of in-home UI KT, illuminating how intersubjectivity and bi-directional relational interactions are essential to translating in-home chronic care knowledge, which is largely tacit and experiential in nature.

Combating loneliness among persons with severe mental illness: social network interventions' characteristics, effectiveness, and applicability

More than half of people with severe mental illness are lonely, the subjective state associated with social isolation and lack of desired relationships. Their loneliness is related to impaired ability to make and keep friends, lack of opportunities to participate in social activities, and stigma associated with mental illness that creates barriers between them and their communities. Treatment for people with severe mental illness often fails to include social network interventions that have the potential to decrease loneliness. Knowledge of social network interventions-their characteristics, effectiveness, and applicability for specific patients-can guide nurses' use of these treatment modalities.

Psychosocial club members' characteristics and their readiness to participate in a support group

Among persons with severe mental illness, more than half identify problems with loneliness and social isolation. This study examines the demographic characteristics of 34 psychosocial club members and their readiness to participate in a nurse-facilitated support group as a potential means of increasing affiliation. Readiness is represented by the presence of Stone's postulated deterrents to group participation by persons with severe mental illness--unmet survival needs, crises, disinterest in increasing affiliation, satisfaction with life as is, and unwillingness to share information about themselves and their problems. Relationships between these variables and willingness to join, and later to participate, in a group were examined. Despite impaired social/vocational functioning and high levels of potential deterrents, two-thirds of the participants indicated a willingness to join and one-third actually did participate when groups subsequently were offered. Level of social support was positively correlated with both willingness to join and actual participation. That those scoring low on perceived social support were less willing to join a support group suggests that nurses must actively encourage and facilitate participation.

Exploring the therapeutic potential of friendliness and friendship in nurse-client relationships

Friendliness and friendship, within the nurse-client relationship, are explored. Friendliness is superficial and includes nurses' smiling, joking, a warm tone of voice and interest in clients, while friendship is a deeper more affective involvement between client and nurse. The therapeutic outcomes of friendliness and friendship are significant. When nurses are friendly, client feelings of disease, strangeness and alienation are replaced by feelings of comfort, belonging and involvement. Friendship between nurse and client has similar outcomes but is a deeper experience that is simultaneously rewarding and sustaining for both. The therapeutic potential of friendliness and friendship suggests: (1) focused research would assist nursings' understanding of these concepts, and (2) determine their implications to nurse education and practice.

The dialectic of friendship for people with psychiatric disabilities

In the psychiatric literature, the meaning and importance of friendship has remained largely unexplored, subsumed under the rubric of social support or viewed as a component of community integration. Twenty-one qualitative interviews were conducted with individuals suffering from psychiatric disabilities focusing on the meaning of friendship as they described it. Analysis revealed the contrasts, contradiction and paradox of friendship for this group of people. The ongoing struggles of people with psychiatric disabilities regarding the need to connect with others and have friends, and conversely, the need to be alone and to withdraw from others, was highlighted.