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Surur AK, de Oliveira AB, De Annunzio SR, Ferrisse TM, Fontana CR. Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial photodynamic therapy: A critical update. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2024; 255:112905. [PMID: 38703452 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2024.112905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial antibiotic resistance is one of the most significant challenges for public health. The increase in bacterial resistance, mainly due to microorganisms harmful to health, and the need to search for alternative treatments to contain infections that cannot be treated by conventional antibiotic therapy has been aroused. An alternative widely studied in recent decades is antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT), a treatment that can eliminate microorganisms through oxidative stress. Although this therapy has shown satisfactory results in infection control, it is still controversial in the scientific community whether bacteria manage to develop resistance after successive applications of aPDT. Thus, this work provides an overview of the articles that performed successive aPDT applications in models using bacteria published since 2010, focusing on sublethal dose cycles, highlighting the main PSs tested, and addressing the possible mechanisms for developing tolerance or resistance to aPDT, such as efflux pumps, biofilm formation, OxyR and SoxRS systems, catalase and superoxide dismutase enzymes and quorum sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Koberstain Surur
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Clinical Analysis, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Analú Barros de Oliveira
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Sarah Raquel De Annunzio
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Clinical Analysis, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Túlio Morandin Ferrisse
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Carla Raquel Fontana
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Clinical Analysis, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.
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2
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Batibay GS, Keser Karaoglan G, Gumrukcu Kose G, Ozcelik Kazancioglu E, Metin E, Danisman Kalindemirtas F, Erdem Kuruca S, Arsu N. DNA groove binder and significant cytotoxic activity on human colon cancer cells: Potential of a dimeric zinc (II) phthalocyanine derivative. Biophys Chem 2023; 295:106974. [PMID: 36827854 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2023.106974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
The interaction of a multi-component system consisting of benzene-1,4-diyldimethanimine-bridged dimeric zinc-phthalocyanine groups (4OMPCZ) with calf thymus DNA (ct-DNA) was investigated using UV-Vis absorption, fluorescence emission spectroscopy methods, and viscosity measurements. The binding constant, Kb, which is an important parameter to gain information about the binding mode, was found as 9.7 × 107 M-1 from the UV-Vis absorption studies. Another important spectrophotometric tool is competitive displacement assays with Ethidium bromide and Hoechst 33342. Through this experiment, a higher KSV value was obtained with Hoechst for the phthalocyanine derivative, 4OMPCZ, and the ct-DNA complex than with ethidium bromide. Additionally, molecular docking studies were conducted to calculate the theoretical binding constant and visualize the interactions of 4OMPCZ with a model DNA. According to docking results, although the interactions are mainly located in the major groove of the DNA helix, due to the wrapping, these interactions can also be extended to the minor groove of the DNA. Spectrophotometric, molecular docking, and viscosity studies revealed that the interaction of 4OMPCZ with DNA is likely to be via the major and minor grooves. The in vitro cytotoxic activity of 4OMPCZ was evaluated by MTT assay on human colon cancer cells (HT29) after 72 h of treatment. 4OMPCZ indicated significant cytotoxic activity when stimulated with UV light compared to the standard chemotherapy drugs, fluorouracil (5-FU), and cisplatin on HT29 colon cancer cells. The IC50 value of 4OMPCZ displayed considerably lower concentrations compared to the standard drugs, 5-FU, and cisplatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonul S Batibay
- Yildiz Technical University, Department of Chemistry, Davutpasa Campus, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gulnur Keser Karaoglan
- Yildiz Technical University, Department of Chemistry, Davutpasa Campus, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gulsah Gumrukcu Kose
- Yildiz Technical University, Department of Chemistry, Davutpasa Campus, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Eyup Metin
- Yildiz Technical University, Department of Chemistry, Davutpasa Campus, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey; Turkish-German University, Department of Materials Science and Technology, 34820 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ferdane Danisman Kalindemirtas
- Erzincan Binali Yildirim University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Erzincan 24100, Turkey; Istanbul University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, 34093 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Serap Erdem Kuruca
- Atlas University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Istanbul 34403, Turkey; Istanbul University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, 34093 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Nergis Arsu
- Yildiz Technical University, Department of Chemistry, Davutpasa Campus, 34220 Istanbul, Turkey.
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3
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Piksa M, Lian C, Samuel IC, Pawlik KJ, Samuel IDW, Matczyszyn K. The role of the light source in antimicrobial photodynamic therapy. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:1697-1722. [PMID: 36779328 DOI: 10.1039/d0cs01051k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 74.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) is a promising approach to fight the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance that threatens health care, food security and agriculture. APDT uses light to excite a light-activated chemical (photosensitiser), leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Many APDT studies confirm its efficacy in vitro and in vivo against bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites. However, the development of the field is focused on exploring potential targets and developing new photosensitisers. The role of light, a crucial element for ROS production, has been neglected. What are the main parameters essential for effective photosensitiser activation? Does an optimal light radiant exposure exist? And finally, which light source is best? Many reports have described the promising antibacterial effects of APDT in vitro, however, its application in vivo, especially in clinical settings remains very limited. The restricted availability may partially be due to a lack of standard conditions or protocols, arising from the diversity of selected photosensitising agents (PS), variable testing conditions including light sources used for PS activation and methods of measuring anti-bacterial activity and their effectiveness in treating bacterial infections. We thus sought to systematically review and examine the evidence from existing studies on APDT associated with the light source used. We show how the reduction of pathogens depends on the light source applied, radiant exposure and irradiance of light used, and type of pathogen, and so critically appraise the current state of development of APDT and areas to be addressed in future studies. We anticipate that further standardisation of the experimental conditions will help the field advance, and suggest key optical and biological parameters that should be reported in all APDT studies. More in vivo and clinical studies are needed and are expected to be facilitated by advances in light sources, leading to APDT becoming a sustainable, alternative therapeutic option for bacterial and other microbial infections in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Piksa
- Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Science, Weigla 12, 53-114, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Cheng Lian
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9SS, UK.
| | - Imogen C Samuel
- School of Medicine, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Krzysztof J Pawlik
- Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Science, Weigla 12, 53-114, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Ifor D W Samuel
- Organic Semiconductor Centre, SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9SS, UK.
| | - Katarzyna Matczyszyn
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland.
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Jia S, Sletten EM. Spatiotemporal Control of Biology: Synthetic Photochemistry Toolbox with Far-Red and Near-Infrared Light. ACS Chem Biol 2022; 17:3255-3269. [PMID: 34516095 PMCID: PMC8918031 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The complex network of naturally occurring biological pathways motivates the development of new synthetic molecules to perturb and/or detect these processes for fundamental research and clinical applications. In this context, photochemical tools have emerged as an approach to control the activity of drug or probe molecules at high temporal and spatial resolutions. Traditional photochemical tools, particularly photolabile protecting groups (photocages) and photoswitches, rely on high-energy UV light that is only applicable to cells or transparent model animals. More recently, such designs have evolved into the visible and near-infrared regions with deeper tissue penetration, enabling photocontrol to study biology in tissue and model animal contexts. This Review highlights recent developments in synthetic far-red and near-infrared photocages and photoswitches and their current and potential applications at the interface of chemistry and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shang Jia
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Ellen M Sletten
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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Brozek-Pluska B, Jarota A, Kania R, Abramczyk H. Zinc Phthalocyanine Photochemistry by Raman Imaging, Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Femtosecond Spectroscopy in Normal and Cancerous Human Colon Tissues and Single Cells. Molecules 2020; 25:E2688. [PMID: 32531903 PMCID: PMC7321347 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy is a clinically approved alternative method for cancer treatment in which a combination of nontoxic drugs known as photosensitizers and oxygen is used. Despite intensive investigations and encouraging results, zinc phthalocyanines (ZnPcs) have not yet been approved as photosensitizers for clinical use. Label-free Raman imaging of nonfixed and unstained normal and cancerous colon human tissues and normal human CCD18-Co and cancerous CaCo-2 cell lines, without and after adding ZnPcS4 photosensitizer, was analyzed. The biochemical composition of normal and cancerous colon tissues and colon cells without and after adding ZnPcS4 at the subcellular level was determined. Analyzing the fluorescence/Raman signals of ZnPcS4, we found that in normal human colon tissue samples, in contrast to cancerous ones, there is a lower affinity to ZnPcS4 phthalocyanine. Moreover, a higher concentration in cancerous tissue was concomitant with a blue shift of the maximum peak position specific for the photosensitizer from 691-695 nm to 689 nm. Simultaneously for both types of samples, the signal was observed in the monomer region, confirming the excellent properties of ZnPcS4 for photo therapy (PDT). For colon cell experiments with a lower concentration of ZnPcS4 photosensitizer, c = 1 × 10-6 M, the phthalocyanine was localized in mitochondria/lipid structures; for a higher concentration, c = 9 × 10-6 M, localization inside the nucleus was predominant. Based on time-resolved experiments, we found that ZnPcS4 in the presence of biological interfaces features longer excited-state lifetime photosensitizers compared to the aqueous solution and bare ZnPcS4 film on CaF2 substrate, which is beneficial for application in PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Brozek-Pluska
- Laboratory of Laser Molecular Spectroscopy, Institute of Applied Radiation Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Wroblewskiego 15, 93-590 Lodz, Poland; (A.J.); (R.K.); (H.A.)
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Nieves I, Hally C, Viappiani C, Agut M, Nonell S. A porphycene-gentamicin conjugate for enhanced photodynamic inactivation of bacteria. Bioorg Chem 2020; 97:103661. [PMID: 32086054 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A novel photoantimicrobial agent, namely 2-aminothiazolo[4,5-c]-2,7,12,17-tetrakis(methoxyethyl)porphycene (ATAZTMPo-gentamicin) conjugate, has been prepared by a click reaction between the red-light absorbing 9-isothiocyanate-2,7,12,17-tetrakis(methoxyethyl)porphycene (9-ITMPo) and the antibiotic gentamicin. The conjugate exhibits submicromolar activity in vitro against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, respectively) upon exposure to red light and is devoid of any cytotoxicity in the dark. The conjugate outperforms the two components delivered separately, which may be used to enhance the therapeutic index of gentamicin, broaden the spectrum of pathogens against which it is effective and reduce its side effects. Additionally, we report a novel straightforward synthesis of 2,7,12,17-tetrakis(methoxyethyl) porphycene (TMPo) that decreases the number of steps from nine to six.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Nieves
- Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cormac Hally
- Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain; Dipartamento di Scienze Matematiche, Fisiche e Informatiche, Università di Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 7A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Cristiano Viappiani
- Dipartamento di Scienze Matematiche, Fisiche e Informatiche, Università di Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 7A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Montserrat Agut
- Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Santi Nonell
- Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain.
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7
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Zinc(II) phthalocyanines as photosensitizers for antitumor photodynamic therapy. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2019; 114:105575. [PMID: 31362060 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2019.105575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a highly specific and clinically approved method for cancer treatment in which a nontoxic drug known as photosensitizer (PS) is administered to a patient. After selective tumor irradiation, an almost complete eradication of the tumor can be reached as a consequence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which not only damage tumor cells, but also lead to tumor-associated vasculature occlusion and the induction of an immune response. Despite exhaustive investigation and encouraging results, zinc(II) phthalocyanines (ZnPcs) have not been approved as PSs for clinical use yet. This review presents an overview on the physicochemical properties of ZnPcs and biological results obtained both in vitro and in more complex models, such as 3D cell cultures, chicken chorioallantoic membranes and tumor-bearing mice. Cell death pathways induced after PDT treatment with ZnPcs are discussed in each case. Finally, combined therapeutic strategies including ZnPcs and the currently available clinical trials are mentioned.
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Meerovich IG, Gulyaev MV, Meerovich GA, Belov MS, Derkacheva VM, Dolotova OV, Loschenov VB, Baryshnikov AY, Pirogov YA. Study of phthalocyanine derivatives as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. RUSS J GEN CHEM+ 2015. [DOI: 10.1134/s1070363215010478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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9
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Effect of Some Substituents Increasing the Solubility of Zn(II) and Al(III) Phthalocyanines on Their Photophysical Properties. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2014; 2014:952632. [PMID: 25302061 PMCID: PMC4180393 DOI: 10.1155/2014/952632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Water solubility of phthalocyanines (Pcs) usually increases by the introduction of charged or carboxy substituents in the peripheral positions of the macrocycle. As a result, such structural changes influence their photophysical and photochemical properties as photosensitizers. Phthalocyanines substituted with four or eight terminal carboxyl groups and having in some cases additional eight positive charges (water soluble phthalocyanines) were studied in order to evaluate the spectroscopic and photophysical effects of these side residues on the chromophore properties. The quantum yield of singlet oxygen (1O2) generation, the triplet-triplet absorption, and the transient absorption spectra were measured and linked to the structure of the substituents. It was shown that charged substituents did not change the quantum yields of 1O2 generation but decrease its lifetimes. The introduction of the charged substituents not only increases the water solubility but also significantly changes absorption, fluorescence, and transient absorption spectra of water soluble Pcs.
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Dosselli R, Tampieri C, Ruiz-González R, De Munari S, Ragàs X, Sánchez-García D, Agut M, Nonell S, Reddi E, Gobbo M. Synthesis, characterization, and photoinduced antibacterial activity of porphyrin-type photosensitizers conjugated to the antimicrobial peptide apidaecin 1b. J Med Chem 2013; 56:1052-63. [PMID: 23231466 DOI: 10.1021/jm301509n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is an emerging treatment for bacterial infections that is becoming increasingly more attractive because of its effectiveness against multi-antibiotic-resistant strains and unlikelihood of inducing bacterial resistance. Among the strategies to enhance the efficacy of PDT against Gram-negative bacteria, the binding to a cationic antimicrobial peptide offers the attractive prospect for improving both the water solubilty and the localization of the photoactive drug in bacteria. In this work we have compared a number of free and apidaecin-conjugated photosensitizers (PSs) differing in structure and charge. Our results indicate that the conjugation of per se ineffective highly hydrophobic PSs to a cationic peptide produces a photosensitizing agent effective against Gram-negative bacteria. Apidaecin cannot improve the phototoxic activity of cationic PSs, which mainly depends on a very high yield of singlet oxygen production in the surroundings of the bacterial outer membrane. Apidaecin-PS conjugates appear most promising for treatment protocols requiring repeated washing after sensitizer delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Dosselli
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, via U. Bassi 58/B, I-35121 Padova, Italy
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11
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Calvete MJ. Near-infrared absorbing organic materials with nonlinear transmission properties. INT REV PHYS CHEM 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/0144235x.2012.713210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Ogura SI, Tabata K, Fukushima K, Kamachi T, Okura I. Development of phthalocyanines for photodynamic therapy. J PORPHYR PHTHALOCYA 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s1088424606000466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy is a method for treating several diseases, most notably cancer. Recent synthetic activity has created a number of phthalocyanines for potential use as photodynamic therapy photosensitizers. In this mini-review article, the background and the concepts in the development of new phthalocyanines are introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-ichiro Ogura
- Department of Bioengineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Kenji Tabata
- Department of Bioengineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Kaoru Fukushima
- Department of Bioengineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Kamachi
- Department of Bioengineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Ichiro Okura
- Department of Bioengineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
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Huang JD, Jiang XJ, Shen XM, Tang QQ. Synthesis and photobiological properties of novel silicon(IV) phthalocyanines axially modified by paracetamol and 4-hydroxyphenylacetamide. J PORPHYR PHTHALOCYA 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s1088424609001571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Two novel axial-disubstituted silicon(IV) phthalocyanines (compounds 1 and 2) have been prepared by introducing paracetamol (a common antipyretic analgesic) or its isomer 4-hydroxyphenylacetamide at the axial positions of silicon(IV) phthalocyanine, respectively. Their photophysical and biological properties have been examined. Both compounds are highly soluble and exhibit very similar absorption spectra in N, N-dimethylformamide, which is typical for non-aggregated phthalocyanines. Both compounds are photocytotoxic against HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma cells. Compound 2 shows a very high in vitro photodynamic activity, with the IC50 value down to 15 nM. In contrast, compound 1 exhibits a much lower in vitro photodynamic activity toward HT29 cells, which can be attributed to its higher aggregating trend in the biological medium and lower singlet oxygen quantum yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Dong Huang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Xiong-Jie Jiang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Xiao-Min Shen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Qing-Qing Tang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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Sekkat N, van den Bergh H, Nyokong T, Lange N. Like a bolt from the blue: phthalocyanines in biomedical optics. Molecules 2011; 17:98-144. [PMID: 22198535 PMCID: PMC6269082 DOI: 10.3390/molecules17010098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to compile preclinical and clinical results on phthalocyanines (Pcs) as photosensitizers (PS) for Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) and contrast agents for fluorescence imaging. Indeed, Pcs are excellent candidates in these fields due to their strong absorbance in the NIR region and high chemical and photo-stability. In particular, this is mostly relevant for their in vivo activation in deeper tissular regions. However, most Pcs present two major limitations, i.e., a strong tendency to aggregate and a low water-solubility. In order to overcome these issues, both chemical tuning and pharmaceutical formulation combined with tumor targeting strategies were applied. These aspects will be developed in this review for the most extensively studied Pcs during the last 25 years, i.e., aluminium-, zinc- and silicon-based Pcs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawal Sekkat
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Lausanne/Geneva, Geneva, 30, quai Ernest Ansermet, Geneva CH-1211, Switzerland
| | - Hubert van den Bergh
- Laboratory of Photomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Tebello Nyokong
- Department of Chemistry, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa
| | - Norbert Lange
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Lausanne/Geneva, Geneva, 30, quai Ernest Ansermet, Geneva CH-1211, Switzerland
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.:+41-22-379-3335; Fax: +41-22-379-6567
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Synthesis, Characterization, and In Vitro Photodynamic Activity of Novel Amphiphilic Zinc(II) Phthalocyanines Bearing Oxyethylene-Rich Substituents. Met Based Drugs 2011; 2008:284691. [PMID: 18288246 PMCID: PMC2225524 DOI: 10.1155/2008/284691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2007] [Accepted: 09/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Three novel zinc(II) phthalocyanines substituted with one or two 3,4,5-tris(3,6,9-trioxadecoxy)benzoxy group(s) have been prepared and spectroscopically characterized. These compounds are highly soluble and remain nonaggregated in N,N-dimethylformamide. Upon excitation, they exhibit a relatively weak fluorescence emission and high efficiency to generate singlet oxygen compared with the unsubstituted zinc(II) phthalocyanine. These amphiphilic photosensitizers formulated with Cremophor EL are highly photocytotoxic against HT29 human colon adenocarcinoma and HepG2 human hepatocarcinoma cells. The mono-α-substituted analogue 4 is particularly potent with IC50 values as low as 0.02 μM.
The higher photodynamic activity of this compound can be attributed to its lower aggregation tendency in the culture media as shown by absorption spectroscopy and higher cellular uptake as suggested by the stronger intracellular fluorescence, resulting in a higher efficiency to generate reactive oxygen species inside the cells.
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García-Díaz M, Sánchez-García D, Soriano J, Sagristà ML, Mora M, Villanueva Á, Stockert JC, Cañete M, Nonell S. Temocene: the porphycene analogue of temoporfin (Foscan®). MEDCHEMCOMM 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c1md00065a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Selbo PK, Weyergang A, Høgset A, Norum OJ, Berstad MB, Vikdal M, Berg K. Photochemical internalization provides time- and space-controlled endolysosomal escape of therapeutic molecules. J Control Release 2010; 148:2-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2010] [Revised: 05/31/2010] [Accepted: 06/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Ben Dror S, Bronshtein I, Weitman H, Smith KM, O'Neal WG, Jacobi PA, Ehrenberg B. The binding of analogs of porphyrins and chlorins with elongated side chains to albumin. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2009; 38:847-55. [PMID: 19330323 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-009-0444-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2009] [Accepted: 03/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In previous studies, we demonstrated that elongation of side chains of several sensitizers endowed them with higher affinity for artificial and natural membranes and caused their deeper localization in membranes. In the present study, we employed eight hematoporphyrin and protoporphyrin analogs and four groups containing three chlorin analogs each, all synthesized with variable numbers of methylenes in their alkyl carboxylic chains. We show that these tetrapyrroles' affinity for bovine serum albumin (BSA) and their localization in the binding site are also modulated by chain lengths. The binding constants of the hematoporphyrins and protoporphyrins to BSA increased as the number of methylenes was increased. The binding of the chlorins depended on the substitution at the meso position opposite to the chains. The quenching of the sensitizers' florescence by external iodide ions decreased as the side chains became longer, indicating to deeper insertion of the molecules into the BSA binding pocket. To corroborate this conclusion, we studied the efficiency of photodamage caused to tryptophan in BSA upon illumination of the bound sensitizers. The efficiency was found to depend on the side-chain lengths of the photosensitizer. We conclude that the protein site that hosts these sensitizers accommodates different analogs at positions that differ slightly from each other. These differences are manifested in the ease of access of iodide from the external aqueous phase, and in the proximity of the photosensitizers to the tryptophan. In the course of this study, we developed the kinetic equations that have to be employed when the sensitizer itself is being destroyed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimshon Ben Dror
- Department of Physics, Nano Medicine Research Center, Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, 52900, Ramat Gan, Israel
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Kuznetsova AA, Solov'eva LI, Fedorova OS. [Single-stranded DNA modification by an oligonucleotide-phthalocyanine Fe(II) conjugate: kinetic regulation and mechanism]. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2009; 34:683-95. [PMID: 19060943 DOI: 10.1134/s1068162008050117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Catalytic oxidative modification of single-stranded DNA with hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen in the presence of a conjugate containing an oligonucleotide complementary to the DNA fragment and tetra-4-carboxyphthalocyanine Fe(II) was studied. The conjugate examined was found to be active in the reaction of oxidative DNA cleavage in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, like earlier studied oligonucleotide conjugates containing tetra-4-carboxyphthalocyanine Co(II) and 2,4-di-[2-(2-hydroxyethyl)]deuteroporphyrin IX Fe(III) metallocomplexes generating active oxygen forms. The new conjugate was more active in the case of oxidation with molecular oxygen. Kinetic regularities and optimal regimes of DNA oxidation with hydrogen peroxide were found.
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Liu JY, Lo PC, Jiang XJ, Fong WP, Ng DKP. Synthesis and in vitro photodynamic activities of di-α-substituted zinc(ii) phthalocyanine derivatives. Dalton Trans 2009:4129-35. [DOI: 10.1039/b817940a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Ke MR, Huang JD, Weng SM. Comparison between non-peripherally and peripherally tetra-substituted zinc (II) phthalocyanines as photosensitizers: Synthesis, spectroscopic, photochemical and photobiological properties. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2008.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Kuznetsova AA, Lukyanets EA, Solovyeva LI, Knorre DG, Fedorova OS. DNA-binding and oxidative properties of cationic phthalocyanines and their dimeric complexes with anionic phthalocyanines covalently linked to oligonucleotides. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2008; 26:307-20. [PMID: 18808197 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2008.10507246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Design of chemically modified oligonucleotides for regulation of gene expression has attracted considerable attention over the past decades. One actively pursued approach involves antisense or antigene oligonucleotide constructs carrying reactive groups, many of these based on transition metal complexes. The complexes of Fe(II) and Co(II) with phthalocyanines are extremely good catalysts of oxidation of organic compounds with molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. The binding of positively charged Fe(II) and Co(II) phthalocyanines with single- and double-stranded DNA was investigated. It was shown that these phthalocyanines interact with nucleic acids through an outside binding mode. The site-directed modification of single-stranded DNA by O2 and H2O2 in the presence of dimeric complexes of negatively and positively charged Fe(II) and Co(II) phthalocyanines was investigated. These complexes were formed directly on single-stranded DNA through interaction between negatively charged phthalocyanine in conjugate and positively charged phthalocyanine in solution. The resulting oppositely charged phthalocyanine complexes showed significant increase of catalytic activity compared with monomeric forms of phthalocyanines Fe(II) and Co(II). These complexes catalyzed the DNA oxidation with high efficacy and led to direct DNA strand cleavage. It was determined that oxidation of DNA by molecular oxygen catalyzed by complex of Fe(II)-phthalocyanines proceeds with higher rate than in the case of Co(II)-phthalocyanines but the latter led to a greater extent of target DNA modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Kuznetsova
- Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova St. 2, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
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Li Y, Pritchett TM, Huang J, Ke M, Shao P, Sun W. Photophysics and Nonlinear Absorption of Peripheral-Substituted Zinc Phthalocyanines. J Phys Chem A 2008; 112:7200-7. [DOI: 10.1021/jp7108835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yunjing Li
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, AMSRD-ARL-SE-EM, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland 20783-1197, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Timothy M. Pritchett
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, AMSRD-ARL-SE-EM, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland 20783-1197, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jiandong Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, AMSRD-ARL-SE-EM, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland 20783-1197, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Meirong Ke
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, AMSRD-ARL-SE-EM, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland 20783-1197, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Pin Shao
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, AMSRD-ARL-SE-EM, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland 20783-1197, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Wenfang Sun
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, AMSRD-ARL-SE-EM, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland 20783-1197, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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Synthesis and in vitro PDT activity of miscellaneous porphyrins with amino acid and uracil. Bioorg Med Chem 2008; 16:5665-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2008.03.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2008] [Revised: 03/22/2008] [Accepted: 03/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Liu JY, Jiang XJ, Fong WP, Ng DKP. Highly photocytotoxic 1,4-dipegylated zinc(ii) phthalocyanines. Effects of the chain length on the in vitro photodynamic activities. Org Biomol Chem 2008; 6:4560-6. [DOI: 10.1039/b814627f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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26
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Li Y, Dini D, Calvete MJF, Hanack M, Sun W. Photophysics and nonlinear optical properties of tetra- and octabrominated silicon naphthalocyanines. J Phys Chem A 2007; 112:472-80. [PMID: 18163601 DOI: 10.1021/jp0771116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The effect of the number of bromide substituents on the photophysical and nonlinear optical properties of the tetrabrominated naphthalocyanine Br4(tBu2PhO)4NcSi[OSi(Hex)3]2 (1) and the octabrominated naphthalocyanine Br8NcSi[OSi(Hex)3]2 (2) has been investigated through various spectroscopic techniques. Absorption and emission of 1 and 2 have been studied at room temperature and 77 K to determine the spectral properties of the ground and the excited states and the lifetimes and quantum yields of formation of the excited states. There is a moderate increase of the quantum yield of the triplet excited-state formation (PhiT = 0.10 vs 0.13) and a decrease of the triplet excited-state lifetime (tauT approximately 70 vs 50 mus) from 1 to 2. These can be attributed to the stronger heavy atom effect produced by the larger number of peripheral bromide substituents in 2 considering that an excited state with a triplet manifold is involved in the excitation dynamics of both complexes 1 and 2. The quantum yields of the singlet oxygen formation (PhiDelta) upon irradiation of 1 and 2 at 355 nm were also evaluated, and a value of PhiDelta(1) = PhiDelta(2) = 0.16 was obtained. In addition to that, octabrominated complex 2 displays a larger decrease of nonlinear optical transmission for nanosecond pulses at 532 nm with respect to the tetrabrominated complex 1. The nanosecond Z-scan experiments reveal that 1 and 2 exhibit both a reverse saturable absorption and a nonlinear refraction at 532 nm. However, both the sign and the magnitude of the nonlinear refraction change from 1 to 2. For picosecond Z-scan in the visible spectral region, these two complexes exhibit only reverse saturable absorption, and the excited-state absorption cross-section increases at longer wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjing Li
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5516, USA
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Calzavara-Pinton PG, Venturini M, Sala R. Photodynamic therapy: update 2006. Part 1: Photochemistry and photobiology. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2007; 21:293-302. [PMID: 17309449 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.01902.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a two-step therapeutic technique in which the topical or systemic delivery of photosensitizing drugs is followed by irradiation with visible light. Activated photosensitizers transfer energy to molecular oxygen, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). The subsequent oxidation of lipids, amino acids and proteins induces cell necrosis and apoptosis. In addition, ROS indirectly stimulate the transcription and release of inflammatory mediators. The photosensitizers are selective, in that they penetrate and accumulate in tumour cells or in the endothelium of newly formed vessels while generally avoiding the surrounding healthy tissue. The mechanisms of penetration through the cell membrane and the pattern of subcellular localization strongly influence the type of cellular effect. The photobiology and photoimmunology of the haematoporphyrin (Hp) derivative and its purified, lyophilized and concentrated form porfimer sodium have been investigated over the past 30 years. However, interest in PDT in dermatology was not raised until the 1990s with the availability of a simple and effective technique, the topical application of aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) and its methyl ester (methyl aminolaevulinate, MAL) followed by irradiation with broadband red light. At the same time, several new 'second-generation' synthetic sensitizers (e.g. benzoporphyrin derivatives, phthalocyanines, chlorins and porphycenes) became available. These compounds are chemically pure, highly efficient, selective and safe, while offering the advantage that the generalized skin photosensitivity they produce lasts for only a short time. They are currently under clinical evaluation but have not yet been approved for clinical use. This paper provides an overview of the chemistry of the photosensitizers, the photobiology and photoimmunology of the photodynamic reaction as well as the photophysical characteristics of the light sources available for PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Calzavara-Pinton
- Department of Dermatology, Azienda Ospedaliera Spedali Civili and University of Brescia, Piazzale Spedali Civili 1, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
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Calzavara-Pinton PG, Venturini M, Sala R. Photodynamic therapy: update 2006. Part 2: Clinical results. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2007; 21:439-51. [PMID: 17373968 DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.02038.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In several randomized, controlled studies, the application of a standard preparation containing methyl-aminolevulinate (MAL; Metvix, Galderma, F), followed by red light irradiation proved effective and well tolerated in the treatment of actinic keratosis and basal cell carcinoma, and has now been approved for clinical use in European countries. A brand name aminolevulinic acid (ALA) solution (Levulan Kerastick, Dusa Pharmaceuticals Inc., Wilmington, MA) plus blue light exposure has been approved for the treatment of actinic keratosis in the USA. Randomized and controlled studies have shown that MAL as well as ALA are also effective in the treatment of Bowen's disease. In addition, a large and growing number of open studies or case reports have evaluated its use in the treatment of a broad range of other neoplastic, inflammatory and infectious skin diseases. However, efficacy and definite advantages over standard therapies remain to be clarified because the experimental design of these studies was often poor, the number of enrolled patients was generally low, and the follow-up was shorter than 12 months. However, these studies have suggested a few possible clinical applications worthy of further investigation. A growing number of laboratory and clinical findings suggest that several new synthetic sensitizers, besides ALA and MAL, may be helpful in the treatment of non-melanoma skin cancers, melanoma metastasis, and selected inflammatory and infective skin diseases. These compounds are deliverable intravenously, have short half-lives both in the blood and skin, and are highly efficient. However, they are as of yet not approved for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- P G Calzavara-Pinton
- Department of Dermatology, Azienda Ospedaliera Spedali Civili and University of Brescia, P.le Spedali Civili 1, 25123, Brescia, Italy.
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Lo PC, Leung SC, Chan EY, Fong WP, Ko WH, Ng DK. Photodynamic effects of a novel series of silicon(IV) phthalocyanines against human colon adenocarcinoma cells. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2007; 4:117-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2007.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2006] [Revised: 03/06/2007] [Accepted: 03/12/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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30
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Mody TD, Sessler JL. Porphyrin- and Expanded Porphyrin-Based Diagnostic and Therapeutic Agents. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/9780470511497.ch7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
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31
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Huang JD, Lo PC, Chen YM, Lai JC, Fong WP, Ng DKP. Preparation and in vitro photodynamic activity of novel silicon(IV) phthalocyanines conjugated to serum albumins. J Inorg Biochem 2006; 100:946-51. [PMID: 16412511 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2005.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2005] [Revised: 11/27/2005] [Accepted: 11/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The interactions of four novel silicon(IV) phthalocyanines (SiPc), namely SiPc[OC(3)H(5)(NMe(2))(2)](2) (1), SiPc[OC(3)H(5)(NMe(2))(2)](OMe) (2), {SiPc[OC(3)H(5)(NMe(3))(2)](2)}I(4) (3), and {SiPc[OC(3)H(5)(NMe(3))(2)](OMe)}I(2) (4) with human serum albumin (HSA), bovine serum albumin (BSA), and maleylated bovine serum albumin (mBSA) were studied by fluorescence spectroscopy. The fluorescence emission of the serum albumins was effectively quenched by these phthalocyanines mainly through a static quenching mechanism. The higher Stern-Volmer quenching constants for the unsymmetrically substituted phthalocyanines 2 and 4 suggested that they have a stronger interaction with these proteins than the symmetrically substituted analogues 1 and 3. A series of non-covalent BSA or mBSA conjugates of these phthalocyanines were also prepared and evaluated for their in vitro photodynamic activity against HepG2 human hepatocarcinoma cells. The bioconjugation could enhance the photocytotoxicity of 1 and 4 by up to eight folds, but the effects on 2 and 3 were negligible. The results could be partly explained by two counter-balancing effects, namely the enhanced uptake and increased aggregation tendency of phthalocyanine due to BSA conjugation. As shown by absorption spectroscopy, the tetracationic phthalocyanine 3 was significantly aggregated in the protein cavity and its photocytotoxicity remained the lowest among the four photosensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Dong Huang
- Department of Chemistry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
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Meerovich IG, Smirnova ZS, Oborotova NA, Luk'yanets EA, Meerovich GA, Derkacheva VM, Polozkova AP, Kubasova IY, Baryshnikov AY. Hydroxyaluminium tetra-3-phenylthiophthalocyanine is a new effective photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy and fluorescent diagnosis. Bull Exp Biol Med 2006; 139:427-30. [PMID: 16027872 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-005-0313-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We studied the possibility of using liposomal forms of hydroxyaluminium tetra-3-phenylthiophthalocyanine as a near infrared band photosensitizer. Experiments on mice with solid Ehrlich tumor and subcutaneously transplanted P-388 leukemia revealed high selectivity of accumulation of the photosensitizer in tumors in comparison with normal tissues and high photodynamic activity of the preparation. This photosensitizer can be used as the basis for creating an effective preparation for photodynamic therapy and fluorescent diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- I G Meerovich
- N. N. Blokhin National Center for Cancer Research, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Russia.
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Chernonosov AA, Koval VV, Knorre DG, Chernenko AA, Derkacheva VM, Lukyanets EA, Fedorova OS. Conjugates of phthalocyanines with oligonucleotides as reagents for sensitized or catalytic DNA modification. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2006; 2006:63703. [PMID: 17497012 PMCID: PMC1779547 DOI: 10.1155/bca/2006/63703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2004] [Revised: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 12/03/2004] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Several conjugates of metallophthalocyanines with deoxyribooligonucleotides were synthesized to investigate sequence-specific modification of DNA by them. Oligonucleotide parts of these conjugates were responsible for the recognition of selected complementary sequences on the DNA target. Metallophthalocyanines were able to induce the DNA modification: phthalocyanines of Zn(II) and Al(III) were active as photosensitizers in the generation of singlet oxygen (1)O(2), while phthalocyanine of Co(II) promoted DNA oxidation by molecular oxygen through the catalysis of formation of reactive oxygen species ((.)O(2) (-), H(2)O(2), OH). Irradiation of the reaction mixture containing either Zn(II)- or Al(III)-tetracarboxyphthalocyanine conjugates of oligonucleotide pd(TCTTCCCA) with light of > 340 nm wavelength (Hg lamp or He/Ne laser) resulted in the modification of the 22-nucleotide target d(TGAATGGGAAGAGGGTCAGGTT). A conjugate of Co(II)-tetracarboxyphthalocyanine with the oligonucleotide was found to modify the DNA target in the presence of O(2) and 2-mercaptoethanol or in the presence of H(2)O(2). Under both sensitized and catalyzed conditions, the nucleotides G(13)-G(15) were mainly modified, providing evidence that the reaction proceeded in the double-stranded oligonucleotide. These results suggest the possible use of phthalocyanine-oligonucleotide conjugates as novel artificial regulators of gene expression and therapeutic agents for treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander A. Chernonosov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental
Medicine, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Lavrentyev Avenue 8, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Pyrogova Street 2,
Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Institute of Human Ecology, Sovetskii Avenue 18,
Kemerovo 650099, Russia
| | - Vladimir V. Koval
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental
Medicine, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Lavrentyev Avenue 8, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Pyrogova Street 2,
Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Dmitrii G. Knorre
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental
Medicine, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Lavrentyev Avenue 8, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Pyrogova Street 2,
Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Alexander A. Chernenko
- Institute of Semiconductor Physics, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue 13,
Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | | | - Eugenii A. Lukyanets
- Organic Intermediates and Dyes Institute, B. Sadovaya 1/4, Moscow 103787, Russia
| | - Olga S. Fedorova
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental
Medicine, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Lavrentyev Avenue 8, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Pyrogova Street 2,
Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
- *Olga S. Fedorova:
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Szaciłowski K, Macyk W, Drzewiecka-Matuszek A, Brindell M, Stochel G. Bioinorganic photochemistry: frontiers and mechanisms. Chem Rev 2005; 105:2647-94. [PMID: 15941225 DOI: 10.1021/cr030707e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 561] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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35
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Alvarez MG, Vittar NBR, Principe F, Bergesse J, Romanini MC, Romanini S, Bertuzzi M, Durantini EN, Rivarola V. Pharmacokinetic and phototherapeutic studies of monocationic methoxyphenylporphyrin derivative. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2005; 1:335-44. [PMID: 25048437 DOI: 10.1016/s1572-1000(04)00068-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2004] [Revised: 12/08/2004] [Accepted: 12/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJETIVE Photodynamic therapy, a novel treatment for cancer, works through photoactivation of a tumor-localized photosensitive drug, and localized through oxidative damage to kill cells and ablate tumors. Pharmacokinetic and phototherapeutic properties of a cationic porphyrin were assayed in a Balb/c mouse cancer model in order to evaluate its efficiency as photosensitizer. METHODS Biodistribution studies were carried out by intraperitoneal injection of 5mg/kg CP incorporated into a liposome solution. CP was recovered from serum and organs at various times after treatment. The serum biochemical parameters and histological studies were used to test hepatic and renal functionality. For phototherapeutic studies, the light source used was a slide projector (360J/cm(2)). The efficiency of CP was evaluated by following tumor growth curves for 10 days after PDT doses. Immunohistochemical detection was carried out to evaluate caspase-3 activation in CP-PDT-treated tumors. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The photosensitizer distribution suggests that CP is mainly eliminated from the organism via the bile-gut pathway, and that neurotoxic and cutaneous photosensitivity effects are reduced or absent. The porphyrin distribution from bloodstream to tissue began at 24h of drug administration. CP did not affect the hepatic and renal functionality, as was demonstrated by the physiological parameters. PDT-treated tumors showed delay in growth rate as compared to untreated control mice. Biochemical studies showed that the efficient tumor regression is dependent on caspase-3 activity signaling response associated with apoptosis. The results obtained suggest that the porphyrin CP may be a promising candidate for further use in PDT treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gabriela Alvarez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - N Belén Rumie Vittar
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Fernando Principe
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Jorge Bergesse
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - M Cristina Romanini
- Departamento de Anatomía Animal, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Silvia Romanini
- Departamento de Patología Animal, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Mabel Bertuzzi
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Edgardo N Durantini
- Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Viviana Rivarola
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Agencia Postal No. 3, 5800 Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
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Rubio N, Prat F, Bou N, Borrell JI, Teixidó J, Villanueva Á, Juarranz Á, Cañete M, Stockert JC, Nonell S. A comparison between the photophysical and photosensitising properties of tetraphenyl porphycenes and porphyrins. NEW J CHEM 2005. [DOI: 10.1039/b415314f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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37
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Lang K, Mosinger J, Wagnerová D. Photophysical properties of porphyrinoid sensitizers non-covalently bound to host molecules; models for photodynamic therapy. Coord Chem Rev 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2004.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 371] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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38
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Nyman ES, Hynninen PH. Research advances in the use of tetrapyrrolic photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2004; 73:1-28. [PMID: 14732247 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2003.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 555] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising new treatment modality for several diseases, most notably cancer. In PDT, light, O2, and a photosensitizing drug are combined to produce a selective therapeutic effect. Lately, there has been active research on new photosensitizer candidates, because the most commonly used porphyrin photosensitizers are far from ideal with respect to PDT. Finding a suitable photosensitizer is crucial in improving the efficacy of PDT. Recent synthetic activity has created such a great number of potential photosensitizers for PDT that it is difficult to decide which ones are suitable for which pathological conditions, such as various cancer species. To facilitate the choice of photosensitizer, this review presents a thorough survey of the photophysical and chemical properties of the developed tetrapyrrolic photosensitizers. Special attention is paid to the singlet-oxygen yield (PhiDelta) of each photosensitizer, because it is one of the most important photodynamic parameters in PDT. Also, in the survey, emphasis is placed on those photosensitizers that can easily be prepared by partial syntheses starting from the abundant natural precursors, protoheme and the chlorophylls. Such emphasis is justified by economical and environmental reasons. Several of the most promising photosensitizer candidates are chlorins or bacteriochlorins. Consequently, chlorophyll-related chlorins, whose PhiDelta have been determined, are discussed in detail as potential photosensitizers for PDT. Finally, PDT is briefly discussed as a treatment modality, including its clinical aspects, light sources, targeting of the photosensitizer, and opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma S Nyman
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. BOX 55 (A.I. Virtasen aukio 1), Helsinki FIN-00014, Finland
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39
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Keizer SP, Han W, Stillman MJ. Photochemically-induced radical reactions of zinc phthalocyanine. Inorg Chem 2002; 41:353-8. [PMID: 11800625 DOI: 10.1021/ic010688w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Direct measurements of the radical reaction products following the electrochemical and photochemical oxidation and reduction of a metallophthalocyanine pi-ring are reported. Electrospray mass spectrometry was used to detect the presence of the anion zinc(II) (1,4,8,11,15,18,22,25-octafluoro, 2,3,9,10,16,17,23,24-octaperfluoroisopropylphthalocyanine chloride, [ZnperF(64)Pc(-2) (Cl)](-), and its pi ring anion radical species, [ZnperF(64)Pc(-3)(Cl)](2-). This paper describes the use of ESI-MS techniques to determine the products of an on-line, photochemical radical oxidation, using CBr(4) as a sacrificial photoinduced oxidizing agent, which oxidized the radical, [ZnperF(64)Pc(-3)(Cl)](2-) species to [ZnperF(64)Pc(-2)(Cl)](-), where the complete reaction was detected directly by the mass spectrometer. This study makes use of electrospray mass spectrometry to detect the presence of an anion radical as the key component in the ring-reduced species and to monitor the immediate products of the important class of photochemical reduction and oxidation reactions in which radicals of the Zn Pc are formed in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P Keizer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
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40
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Polo L, Valduga G, Jori G, Reddi E. Low-density lipoprotein receptors in the uptake of tumour photosensitizers by human and rat transformed fibroblasts. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2002; 34:10-23. [PMID: 11733181 DOI: 10.1016/s1357-2725(01)00092-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) increase the selectivity of tumour targeting by drugs, including sensitisers for photodynamic therapy, because of the enhanced expression of specific LDL receptors in many types of transformed as compared with non-transformed cells. This investigation aims at gaining more information on the role of LDL receptors in the accumulation of photosensitizer-LDL complexes by human and rat transformed fibroblasts, and the interference of the photosensitizer with LDL recognition by the specific receptors. Both an amphiphilic hematoporphyrin IX (Hp) and a hydrophobic Zn(II)-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) photosensitizers bind to human LDL with molar ratios of 5-6:1 and 10-12:1, respectively. The hematoporphyrin-LDL complex is accumulated by human HT1080 fibroblasts mainly through the high affinity LDL receptors, while the Zn-phthalocyanine-LDL complex is internalised through non specific endocytosis because of changes in the apoB LDL structure induced by phthalocyanine association, as suggested by spectroscopic studies. The uptake of LDL-delivered hematoporphyrin, but not Zn-phthalocyanine, is about 4-fold higher in HT1080 cells stimulated for maximal expression of LDL receptors as compared with non-stimulated cells. This difference is abolished by LDL acetylation. Human LDL-bound hematoporphyrin and Zn-phthalocyanine are up taken by stimulated and non-stimulated 4R rat fibroblasts with similar efficiency. Scatchard plot analysis of human (125)I-LDL binding to 4R cells shows the presence of only low affinity receptors while 350,000 high affinity receptors are expressed per HT1080 cell. It is concluded that a careful evaluation of the lack of conformational changes of LDL is critical for guaranteeing the selectivity and efficiency of photosensitizer delivery to tumour cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Polo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, via U. Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy
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41
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Rodríguez ME, Strassert CA, Awruch J, Dicelio LE. Synthesis of novel alkylamino zinc(II) phthalocyanines. J Heterocycl Chem 2001. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.5570380212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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42
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Chen SM, Chiu SW. The catalytic and photocatalytic autoxidation of Sx2− to SO42− by water-soluble cobalt porphyrin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s1381-1169(00)00471-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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43
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Chapter 7 Photosensitizers—systemic sensitization. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s1568-461x(01)80111-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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44
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Singlet oxygen quantum yields from halogenated chlorins: potential new photodynamic therapy agents. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(00)00382-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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45
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Decréau R, Chanon M, Julliard M. Synthesis of Aluminum Phthalocyanines Bearing Bulky Lipophilic Substituents. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2000. [DOI: 10.1080/00397910008087254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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46
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Redmond RW, Gamlin JN. A Compilation of Singlet Oxygen Yields from Biologically Relevant Molecules. Photochem Photobiol 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1999.tb08240.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 573] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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47
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Chen SM. The photocatalytic autoxidation of sulfur oxoanions by water-soluble porphyrin complexes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s1381-1169(98)00148-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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48
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Jori G, Fabris C. Relative contributions of apoptosis and random necrosis in tumour response to photodynamic therapy: effect of the chemical structure of Zn(II)-phthalocyanines. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1998; 43:181-5. [PMID: 9718718 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(98)00106-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Zn(II)-phthalocyanines (ZnPc) and its octapentyl (ZnOPPc) and octadecyl (ZnODPc) derivatives have been intravenously injected at a dose of 1.46 mumol/kg into female Balb/c mice bearing an intramuscularly transplanted MS-2 fibrosarcoma. Pharmacokinetic studies show that in all cases the maximal concentration of phthalocyanine in the tumour is reached at 24 h post-injection: the efficiency and selectivity of tumour targeting slightly increase upon increasing the length of the alkyl substituents. Irradiation of the neoplastic lesion (620-700 nm light, 180 MW/cm2, 300 J/cm2) 24 h after photosensitizer administration induces a significant delay of tumour growth, which was largest (approximately 11 days) for ZnPc and smallest (approximately 3.5 days) for ZnODPc. Electron microscopy investigations of irradiated tumour specimens show that ZnPc causes an early direct damage of malignant cells, largely via processes leading to random necrotic pathways, although a limited contribution of apoptotic pathways is detected. The importance of this increased upon using ZnOPPc and especially ZnODPc as the photosensitizers, possibly due to a different partitioning in different compartments of cell membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Jori
- Department of Biology, University of Padua, Italy.
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49
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Soncin M, Busetti A, Reddi E, Jori G, Rither BD, Kenney ME, Rodgers MA. Pharmacokinetic and phototherapeutic properties of axially substituted Si(IV)-tetradibenzobarreleno-octabutoxyphthalocyanines. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1997; 40:163-7. [PMID: 9345784 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(97)00044-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Three Si(IV)-tetradibenzobarreleno-octabutoxyphthalocyanines (TDiBOPcs) bearing different axial ligands on the metal ion were studied for their tumour-localizing and-photosensitizing properties after i.v. injection via a Cremophor emulsion (0.35 mumol kg-1 b.w.) to Balb/c mice bearing an intramuscularly implanted MS-2 fibrosarcoma. In all cases, the maximum tumour accumulation of the photosensitizer (0.8-1.9 nmol g-1 of tissue) was found at 24 h after injection. The efficiency and selectivity of tumour targeting appeared to be dependent on the nature of the axial ligands; optimal values of these parameters were obtained in the case of the bis(trihexyl-siloxy)-substituted Si(IV)-TDiBOPc, which gave a 7-9 tumour/muscle ratio of phthalocyanine concentration at 24-48 h after injection. The extent of tumour response to PDT treatment was correlated with the concentration of the photosensitizer in the tumour tissue: upon 740 nm irradiation (180 mW cm-2, 200 J cm-2) at 48 h after injection of 0.35 mumol kg-1 of Si(IV)-TDiBOPc-C6H13, the tumour growth exhibited a delay of about 7 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Soncin
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Italy.
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50
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Jori G, Schindl L, Schindl A, Polo L. Novel approaches towards a detailed control of the mechanism and efficiency of photosensitized processes in vivo. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(96)04371-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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