Action spectra in the vacuum UV and far UV (122–300 nm) for inactivation of wet and vacuum-dry spores of Streptomyces griseus and photoreactivation

Planetary Protection Knowledge Gap Closure Enabling Crewed Missions to Mars

As focus for exploration of Mars transitions from current robotic explorers to development of crewed missions, it remains important to protect the integrity of scientific investigations at Mars, as well as protect the Earth's biosphere from any potential harmful effects from returned martian material. This is the discipline of planetary protection, and the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) maintains the consensus international policy and guidelines on how this is implemented. Based on National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European Space Agency (ESA) studies that began in 2001, COSPAR adopted principles and guidelines for human missions to Mars in 2008. At that point, it was clear that to move from those qualitative provisions, a great deal of work and interaction with spacecraft designers would be necessary to generate meaningful quantitative recommendations that could embody the intent of the Outer Space Treaty (Article IX) in the design of such missions. Beginning in 2016, COSPAR then sponsored a multiyear interdisciplinary meeting series to address planetary protection "knowledge gaps" (KGs) with the intent of adapting and extending the current robotic mission-focused Planetary Protection Policy to support the design and implementation of crewed and hybrid exploration missions. This article describes the outcome of the interdisciplinary COSPAR meeting series, to describe and address these KGs, as well as identify potential paths to gap closure. It includes the background scientific basis for each topic area and knowledge updates since the meeting series ended. In particular, credible solutions for KG closure are described for the three topic areas of (1) microbial monitoring of spacecraft and crew health; (2) natural transport (and survival) of terrestrial microbial contamination at Mars, and (3) the technology and operation of spacecraft systems for contamination control. The article includes a KG data table on these topic areas, which is intended to be a point of departure for making future progress in developing an end-to-end planetary protection requirements implementation solution for a crewed mission to Mars. Overall, the workshop series has provided evidence of the feasibility of planetary protection implementation for a crewed Mars mission, given (1) the establishment of needed zoning, emission, transport, and survival parameters for terrestrial biological contamination and (2) the creation of an accepted risk-based compliance approach for adoption by spacefaring actors including national space agencies and commercial/nongovernment organizations.

R3DE: Radiation Risk Radiometer-Dosimeter on the International Space Station--optical radiation data recorded during 18 months of EXPOSE-E exposure to open space

Radiation Risk Radiometer-Dosimeter E (R3DE) served as a device for measuring ionizing and non-ionizing radiation as well as cosmic radiation reaching biological samples located on the EXPOSE platform EXPOSE-E. The duration of the mission was almost 1.5 years (2008-2009). With four channels, R3DE detected the wavelength ranges of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm), UVA (315-400 nm), UVB (280-315 nm), and UVC (<280 nm). In addition, the temperature was recorded. Cosmic ionizing radiation was assessed with a 256-channel spectrometer dosimeter (see separate report in this issue). The light and UV sensors of the device were calibrated with spectral measurement data obtained by the Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) satellite as standard. The data were corrected with respect to the cosine error of the diodes. Measurement frequency was 0.1 Hz. Due to errors in data transmission or temporary termination of EXPOSE power, not all data could be acquired. Radiation was not constant during the mission. At regular intervals of about 2 months, low or almost no radiation was encountered. The radiation dose during the mission was 1823.98 MJ m(-2) for PAR, 269.03 MJ m(-2) for UVA, 45.73 MJ m(-2) for UVB, or 18.28 MJ m(-2) for UVC. Registered sunshine duration during the mission was about 152 days (about 27% of mission time).The surface of EXPOSE was most likely turned away from the Sun for considerably longer. R3DE played a crucial role on EXPOSE-EuTEF (EuTEF, European Technology Exposure Facility), because evaluation of the astrobiology experiments depended on reliability of the data collected by the device. Observed effects in the samples were weighted by radiation doses measured by R3DE.

The Martian and extraterrestrial UV radiation environment. Part II: further considerations on materials and design criteria for artificial ecosystems

Ultraviolet radiation is an important natural physical influence on organism function and ecosystem interactions. The UV radiation fluxes in extraterrestrial environments are substantially different from those experienced on Earth. On Mars, the moon and in Earth orbit they are more biologically detrimental than on Earth. Based on previously presented fluxes and biologically weighted irradiances, this paper considers in more detail measures to mitigate UV radiation damage and methods to modify extraterrestrial UV radiation environments in artificial ecosystems that use natural sunlight. The transmission characteristics of a Martian material that will mimic the terrestrial UV radiation environment are presented. Transmissivity characteristics of other Martian and lunar materials are described. Manufacturing processes for the production of plastics and glass on the lunar and Martian surface are presented with special emphasis on photobiological requirements. Novel UV absorbing configurations are suggested.

Effects of vacuum UV and UVC radiation on dry Escherichia coli plasmid pUC19. II. Mutational specificity at the lacZ gene

The mutational spectra at the lacZ gene, induced either by vacuum UV at 160 nm or UVC at 254 nm in vacuum-dried preparations of Escherichia coli plasmid pUC19 DNA, have been characterized from 72 E. coli-propagated mutants by DNA sequencing. In plasmids irradiated in vacuum, vacuum UV is five times more mutagenic than UVC. In the UV-induced mutants, base substitutions largely predominate, with GC-->AT (G, guanine; C, cytosine; A, adenine; T, thymine) transitions being the most abundant type of base change for vacuum UV (61%) and UVC (47%). Most of the GC-->AT transitions appear to occur at dipyrimidine sites, which are located at the non-transcribed DNA strand. Some, but not all, hot spots for GC-->AT transitions are identical for vacuum UV and UVC. Frameshifts, resulting from a loss of the thymine residue, are specific for UVC (22%), and were not detected after treatment with vacuum UV. They occur predominantly at thymine runs of the transcribed DNA strand. Only a few deletions were detected following irradiation with vacuum UV (7.5%) and UVC (2%); however, their frequency is not enhanced compared with the spontaneous mutation spectrum. The data confirm the important role of base substitution mutations in UV-induced mutagenesis, which is not only valid for the UVC range, but extends towards the vacuum UV range.

Effects of vacuum UV and UVC radiation on dry E. coli plasmid pUC19. I. Inactivation, lacZ- mutation induction and strand breaks

Using Escherichia coli plasmid pUC19 as a test system to study the effects of radiation on DNA at the molecular level, the wavelength (160-254 nm) dependence of inactivation (loss of the ability to transform E. coli), mutation induction in the target gene lacZ and induction of single-strand breaks and double-strand breaks was investigated. The same fluences were applied for all endpoints tested. In the UVC range, the cross-sections of inactivation and mutation induction match the DNA absorption curve, whereas the cross-section for single-strand break induction deviates from the DNA curve, especially at 220 nm. In the vacuum UV range, with increasing energy of the photons, the cross-sections of inactivation and single-strand breaks increase sharply (from 190 to 160 nm by more than one order of magnitude), which is not reflected by the DNA curve. In this UV range, the shape of the action spectrum is similar to that of the absorption curve of the sugar phosphate moiety of DNA. Only after irradiation with vacuum UV at 160 nm are double-strand breaks detected. Their induction rate is about one order of magnitude lower than that of single-strand breaks at the same wavelength; however, their induction rate is at least twice that of single-strand breaks at longer wavelengths. Concerning mutation induction, the increment in the vacuum UV range is less well expressed. The data suggest the contribution of different kinds of photochemical injury to inactivation and mutation induction.

Exobiology, the study of the origin, evolution and distribution of life within the context of cosmic evolution: a review

The primary goal of exobiological research is to reach a better understanding of the processes leading to the origin, evolution and distribution of life on Earth or elsewhere in the universe. In this endeavour, scientists from a wide variety of disciplines are involved, such as astronomy, planetary research, organic chemistry, palaeontology and the various subdisciplines of biology including microbial ecology and molecular biology. Space technology plays an important part by offering the opportunity for exploring our solar system, for collecting extraterrestrial samples, and for utilizing the peculiar environment of space as a tool. Exobiological activities include comparison of the overall pattern of chemical evolution of potential precursors of life, in the interstellar medium, and on the planets and small bodies of our solar system; tracing the history of life on Earth back to its roots; deciphering the environments of the planets in our solar system and of their satellites, throughout their history, with regard to their habitability; searching for other planetary systems in our Galaxy and for signals of extraterrestrial civilizations; testing the impact of space environment on survivability of resistant life forms. This evolutionary approach towards understanding the phenomenon of life in the context of cosmic evolution may eventually contribute to a better understanding of the processes regulating the interactions of life with its environment on Earth.

Photochemistry of DNA and related biomolecules: quantum yields and consequences of photoionization

The reactions of nucleic acids and constituents, which can be induced by laser UV irradiation, are described. Emphasis is placed on the quantum yields of various stable photoproducts of DNA and model compounds upon irradiation at 193, 248, 254 or 266 nm. In particular, those quantum yields and processes are discussed which involve photoionization as the initial step and occur in aqueous solution under well defined conditions, e.g. type of atmosphere. The efficiencies of some photoproducts, with respect to photoionization using irradiation at 193 or 248 nm, are presented. Radical cations of nucleobases are important sources of damage of biological substrates since they can cause lesions other than dimers and adducts, e.g. strand breakage, abasic sites, crosslinks or inactivation of plasmid and chromosomal DNA. While competing photoreactions, such as hydration, dimerization or adduct formation, diminish the selectivity of the photoionization method, a combination with model studies on pyrimidine- and purine-containing constituents of DNA has brought about an enhanced insight into the reaction mechanisms. The knowledge concerning the lethal events in plasmid and cellular DNA has been greatly improved by correlation with the chemical effects obtained by gamma-radiolysis, vacuum-UV (< 190 nm) and low-intensity irradiation at 254 nm.