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Kubota K, Adachi M, Fujii H, Saitsu H, Ohnishi H. Spontaneous Remission of Epileptic Seizures Following Norovirus Infection in a Patient With DNM1 Encephalopathy. Cureus 2024; 16:e60748. [PMID: 38903324 PMCID: PMC11188033 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.60748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Epileptic seizures can be worsened by infections; however, they sometimes disappear or decrease after an acute viral infection, although this is rare. We report the spontaneous remission of epileptic seizures following norovirus-induced viral gastroenteritis in a boy with DNM1 encephalopathy. He had clonic seizures daily from the age of two months and developed epileptic spasms at 14 months of age; he was admitted to the hospital at this time. A physical examination revealed hypotonia, strabismus, tongue protrusion with drooping, and widely spaced teeth. Although brain magnetic resonance imaging was unremarkable, electroencephalography revealed frequent occipital spikes. Three days after admission, the patient developed frequent diarrhea without a fever. A rapid immunochromatographic test of norovirus in a stool sample was positive. Immediately after the appearance of diarrhea, the epileptic seizures disappeared. Currently, at the age of five years, the patient has a profound psychomotor developmental delay; he has no verbal expression and is unable to walk. He has experienced involuntary movements of the myoclonus since 10 months of age. Whole-exome sequencing of the patient's DNA revealed the presence of a heterozygous de novo variant of DNM1: c.709C>T (p.Arg237Trp). Although the findings from our patient suggest that underlying neural network abnormalities were ameliorated by immunological mechanisms as a result of the viral infection, further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms behind this spontaneous remission of seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Kubota
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, Gifu, JPN
| | - Miho Adachi
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, Gifu, JPN
| | - Hidehiko Fujii
- Department of Pediatrics, Ogaki Municipal Hospital, Ogaki, JPN
| | - Hirotomo Saitsu
- Department of Biochemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, JPN
| | - Hidenori Ohnishi
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, Gifu, JPN
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Watanabe Y, Yamanaka G, Morichi S, Hayashi K, Suzuki S, Takeshita M, Morishita N, Ishida Y, Oana S, Takata F, Kawashima H. Altered serum levels of platelet-derived growth factor receptor β and cluster of differentiation 13 suggest a role for pericytes in West syndrome. Brain Dev 2023; 45:479-486. [PMID: 37263884 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2023.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pericytes play a role in the maintenance of the blood-brain barrier and neuroinflammation, attracting attention as to whether they are also involved in the pathogenesis of epilepsy.This study aimed to explore the relationship between West syndrome and pericytes. METHODS Eighteen Japanese pediatric West syndrome patients and nine controls aged 2 years or younger were retrospectively enrolled in this study. We assessed theserumlevels of pericyte markers, serum PDGFRβ (platelet-derived growth factor receptorβ),CD13 (aminopeptidase N), and 27 cytokines in 17 pediatric patients with West syndrome and the control group. RESULTS Patients with West syndrome exhibited significantly increased CD13 and decreased PDGFRβ levels, compared with controls but not serum cytokine levels. These values did not differ significantly between symptomatic and idiopathic West syndrome. CONCLUSION Pericytes might be implicated in the pathogenesis of West syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Watanabe
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan.
| | - Gaku Yamanaka
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Shinichiro Morichi
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Kanako Hayashi
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Shinji Suzuki
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Mika Takeshita
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Natsumi Morishita
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Yu Ishida
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Shingo Oana
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
| | - Fuyuko Takata
- Department of Pharmaceutical Care and Health Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Hisashi Kawashima
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan
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Chen H, Chen Y, Wu H, Qiu X, Yu X, Wang R, Zhong J, Peng J. De novo variants in PHF21A cause intellectual developmental disorder with behavioral abnormalities and craniofacial dysmorphism with or without seizures: A case report and literature review. Seizure 2023; 111:138-146. [PMID: 37633153 DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2023.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE PHF21A has been associated with intellectual developmental disorder with behavioral abnormalities and craniofacial dysmorphism with or without seizures (IDDBCS). Here, we report a new patient with IDDBCS and review previously reported patients. METHODS We reviewed the phenotypic and genetic spectrum of the newly diagnosed patient and previously reported patients with IDDBCS. RESULTS Among 12 patients (11 whose cases were previously reported and the patient whose case we report here), all patients (100%) had intellectual disability (ID) and motor development delay. Three of 8 patients (37.5%) for whom information on cognition was available had severe ID; ID was moderate in two patients (25%) and mild in three patients (37.5%). Seven of the 12 patients (58.33%) had an epileptic phenotype, and the majority (5/7, 71.42%) of affected individuals developed developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE). Of the 5 patients with DEE, three developed infantile epileptic spasm syndrome (IESS). The seizures of 2 patients (2/5, 40%) were controlled by antiseizure medications. Overgrowth, ADHD, hypotonia, ASD, and sleep disorders were observed in 100%, 77.78%, 70%, 50%, and 33.33% of patients, respectively. All of the variants (100%) were de novo heterozygous variants. Three of the 12 patients (25%) had the same variant (p.Arg580*). The most common types of variants were frameshift variants (7/12, 58.33%), followed by nonsense variants (4/12, 33.33%) and missense variants (1/12, 8.33%). Genotype-phenotype relationships for IDDBCS were uncertain, as phenotypic variability was observed among patients with the same variant (p.Arg580*). The patient whose case we report here had a novel PHF21A gene variant (p.Gln97fs*20), which caused neurodevelopmental delay, macrocephaly, and IESS. CONCLUSION The core phenotypes of IDDBCS include neurodevelopmental delay (intellectual disability and impaired motor skills), craniofacial abnormalities, and overgrowth. ADHD, hypotonia, epilepsy, ASD, and sleep disorders are common symptoms of IDDBCS. Notably, DEE is the dominant phenotype of epilepsy, especially IESS. PHF21A may be a candidate gene for DEE. De novo variants are the main mode of inheritance. The most common types of variants are frameshift variants, and the variant p.Arg580* in PHF21A is located at a mutation hot spot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Chen
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Huaping Wu
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiaolu Qiu
- Child healthcare department, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiongying Yu
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China
| | - Ruiyan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China.
| | - Jianmin Zhong
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang, China.
| | - Jing Peng
- Department of Pediatrics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
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Riikonen R. Biochemical mechanisms in pathogenesis of infantile epileptic spasm syndrome. Seizure 2023; 105:1-9. [PMID: 36634586 DOI: 10.1016/j.seizure.2023.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms leading to infantile epileptic spasm syndrome (IESS) remain obscure. The only common factor seems to be that the spasms are restricted to a limited period of infancy, during a certain maturational state. Here the current literature regarding the biochemical mechanisms of brain maturation in IESS is reviewed, and various hypotheses of the pathophysiology are put together. They include: (1) imbalance of inhibitory (NGF, IGF-1, ACTH, GABA) and excitatory factors (glutamate, nitrites) which distinguishes the different etiological subgroups, (2) abnormality of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis linking insults and early life stress, (3) inflammation (4) yet poorly known genetic and epigenetic factors, and (5) glucocorticoid and vigabatrin action on brain development, pinpointing at molecular targets of the pathophysiology from another angle. An altered maturational process may explain why so many, seemingly independent etiological factors lead to the same clinical syndrome and frequently to developmental delay. Understanding these factors can provide ideas for novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raili Riikonen
- Children's Hospital, University of Eastern Finland and Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland.
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Mu C, Nikpoor N, Tompkins TA, Choudhary A, Wang M, Marks WN, Rho JM, Scantlebury MH, Shearer J. Targeted gut microbiota manipulation attenuates seizures in a model of infantile spasms syndrome. JCI Insight 2022; 7:158521. [PMID: 35730569 PMCID: PMC9309045 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.158521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Infantile spasms syndrome (IS) is a devastating early-onset epileptic encephalopathy associated with poor neurodevelopmental outcomes. When first-line treatment options, including adrenocorticotropic hormone and vigabatrin, are ineffective, the ketogenic diet (KD) is often employed to control seizures. Since the therapeutic impact of the KD is influenced by the gut microbiota, we examined whether targeted microbiota manipulation, mimicking changes induced by the KD, would be valuable in mitigating seizures. Employing a rodent model of symptomatic IS, we show that both the KD and antibiotic administration reduce spasm frequency and are associated with improved developmental outcomes. Spasm reductions were accompanied by specific gut microbial alterations, including increases in Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactococcus lactis. Mimicking the fecal microbial alterations in a targeted probiotic, we administered these species in a 5:1 ratio. Targeted probiotic administration reduced seizures and improved locomotor activities in control diet–fed animals, similar to KD-fed animals, while a negative control (Ligilactobacillus salivarius) had no impact. Probiotic administration also increased antioxidant status and decreased proinflammatory cytokines. Results suggest that a targeted probiotic reduces seizure frequency, improves locomotor activity in a rodent model of IS, and provides insights into microbiota manipulation as a potential therapeutic avenue for pediatric epileptic encephalopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunlong Mu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Naghmeh Nikpoor
- Lallemand Bio Ingredients, Lallemand Inc., Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Anamika Choudhary
- Department of Paediatrics.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, and
| | - Melinda Wang
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Wendie N Marks
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Paediatrics.,Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jong M Rho
- Departments of Neurosciences and Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Morris H Scantlebury
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, and.,Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jane Shearer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Higher levels of Bifidobacteria and tumor necrosis factor in children with drug-resistant epilepsy are associated with anti-seizure response to the ketogenic diet. EBioMedicine 2022; 80:104061. [PMID: 35598439 PMCID: PMC9126955 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recently, studies have suggested a role for the gut microbiota in epilepsy. Gut microbial changes during ketogenic diet (KD) treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy have been described. Inflammation is associated with certain types of epilepsy and specific inflammation markers decrease during KD. The gut microbiota plays an important role in the regulation of the immune system and inflammation. Methods 28 children with drug-resistant epilepsy treated with the ketogenic diet were followed in this observational study. Fecal and serum samples were collected at baseline and three months after dietary intervention. Findings We identified both gut microbial and inflammatory changes during treatment. KD had a general anti-inflammatory effect. Novel bioinformatics and machine learning approaches identified signatures of specific Bifidobacteria and TNF (tumor necrosis factor) associated with responders before starting KD. During KD, taxonomic and inflammatory profiles between responders and non-responders were more similar than at baseline. Interpretation Our results suggest that children with drug-resistant epilepsy are more likely to benefit from KD treatment when specific Bifidobacteria and TNF are elevated. We here present a novel signature of interaction of the gut microbiota and the immune system associated with anti-epileptic response to KD treatment. This signature could be used as a prognostic biomarker to identify potential responders to KD before starting treatment. Our findings may also contribute to the development of new anti-seizure therapies by targeting specific components of the gut microbiota. Funding This study was supported by the Swedish Brain Foundation, Margarethahemmet Society, Stiftelsen Sunnerdahls Handikappfond, Linnea & Josef Carlssons Foundation, and The McCormick Genomic & Proteomic Center.
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Takamatsu T, Yamanaka G, Ohno K, Hayashi K, Watanabe Y, Takeshita M, Suzuki S, Morichi S, Go S, Ishida Y, Oana S, Kashiwagi Y, Kawashima H. Involvement of Peripheral Monocytes with IL-1β in the Pathogenesis of West Syndrome. J Clin Med 2022; 11:jcm11020447. [PMID: 35054141 PMCID: PMC8779005 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11020447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of West syndrome (WS). Inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β(IL-1β), have been reported to be associated with epilepsy. However, the assessment of cytokine changes in humans is not always simple or deterministic. This study aimed to elucidate the immunological mechanism of WS. We examined the intracellular cytokine profiles of peripheral blood cells collected from 13 patients with WS, using flow cytometry, and measured their serum cytokine levels. These were compared with those of 10 age-matched controls. We found that the WS group had significantly higher percentages of inter IL-1β, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA)-positive monocytes, and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) in their CD8+ T cells than the control group. Interestingly, the group with sequelae revealed significantly lower levels of intracellular IFN-γ and IL-6 in their CD8+ T and CD4+ T cells, respectively, than the group without sequelae. There was no correlation between the ratios of positive cells and the serum levels of a particular cytokine in the WS patients. These cytokines in the peripheral immune cells might be involved in the neuroinflammation of WS, even in the absence of infectious or immune disease. Overall, an immunological approach using flow cytometry analysis might be useful for immunological studies of epilepsy.
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Wickström R, Ygberg S, Lindefeldt M, Dahlin M. Altered cytokine levels in cerebrospinal fluid following ketogenic diet of children with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2021; 177:106775. [PMID: 34597959 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2021.106775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Ketogenic diet is an effective treatment which has the potential to achieve a significant seizure reduction in drug-resistant epilepsy. The mechanism behind this effect is unclear, but one hypothesis is that the mechanism is anti-inflammatory. In this prospective study on pediatric patients we compared levels of cytokines and chemokines in the cerebrospinal fluid before and after three months on treatment to evaluate a possible anti-inflammatory effect. We analyzed 34 cytokines and chemokines in the cerebrospinal fluid of pediatric patients (n = 21) with refractory epilepsy by a multiplex assay. Beta-hydroxybutyric acid was measured in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. Seizure frequency in relation to diet treatment was assessed. For 9 different cytokines (CCL 7, CCL 21, CCL 22, CCL 25, CCL 27, IL-2, IL-10, CX3CL1 and MIF), a significant decrease ranging from 7 to 27% was seen after three months as compared to levels before the diet. In contrast, no cytokine displayed a significant increase during diet. A seizure reduction ≥ 50 % was seen in 15/21 patients (71 %) but no significant differences in cytokine decreases were found between responders and non-responders during treatment. A non-significant trend towards higher initial pre-treatment levels of cytokines was seen in responders, which were reduced following treatment. The levels of betahydroxybutyric acid were not related to seizure response. We conclude that while it is not possible to state a primary anti-inflammatory effect by dietary treatment from these data, an unequivocal immunological effect is seen and may be a part of the mechanism of ketogenic dietary treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronny Wickström
- Neuropaediatric Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sofia Ygberg
- Neuropaediatric Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marie Lindefeldt
- Neuropaediatric Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Dahlin
- Neuropaediatric Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Yamamoto N, Kuki I, Nagase S, Inoue T, Nukui M, Okazaki S, Furuichi Y, Adachi K, Nanba E, Sakai N, Kawawaki H. Reply to the letter: "A case of infantile Tay-Sachs disease with late onset spasms". Brain Dev 2021; 43:977-978. [PMID: 34429217 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Naohiro Yamamoto
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Ichiro Kuki
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shizuka Nagase
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takeshi Inoue
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Megumi Nukui
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shin Okazaki
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasuko Furuichi
- Department of Pediatrics, Higashiosaka City Medical Center, Higashiosaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kaori Adachi
- Research Initiative Center, Organization for Research Initiative and Promotion, Tottori University, Yonago, Japan
| | - Eiji Nanba
- Division of Clinical Genetics, Tottori University Hospital, Yonago, Japan
| | - Norio Sakai
- Division of Health Science, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hisashi Kawawaki
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Children's Medical Center, Osaka City General Hospital, Osaka, Japan
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Caraballo R, Fortini S, Espeche A. Spontaneous remission of West syndrome associated with acute infection and fever in five patients. Epilepsy Res 2021; 174:106663. [PMID: 33989887 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2021.106663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We analyzed the records of 198 patients with West syndrome (WS) seen at a single pediatric neurology center in Argentina between June 2004 and June 2017. Five patients with infection-related spontaneous remission of the electroclinical manifestations were identified. METHODS The following parameters were investigated: personal and family history, clinical characteristics of the seizures - mainly spasms - and EEG findings, type of treatment, and outcome. The inclusion criteria for WS were epileptic spasms (ES) in clusters, hypsarrhythmia, and mental deterioration. Infants with ES without hypsarrhythmia and other epileptic encephalopathies with ES were excluded. RESULTS Five children, four boys and one girl, met the inclusion criteria of WS with spontaneous remission after a viral infection. The etiology of ES was unknown in four patients and one had a structural etiology. All patients had spontaneous remission of the ES and normalization of the EEG following acute upper respiratory infection in four and exanthema subitum in one; all of them had fever between 38.5 and 40 °C. CONCLUSION We report five patients with spontaneous remission of WS following acute viral infection, associated with a respiratory virus in four and exanthema subitum in one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Caraballo
- Department of Neurology, Hospital de Pediatría "Prof. Dr. Juan P Garrahan", Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Sebastian Fortini
- Department of Neurology, Hospital de Pediatría Niño Jesús, Tucumán, Argentina.
| | - Alberto Espeche
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Materno Infantil Salta, Argentina.
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The role of inflammatory mediators in epilepsy: Focus on developmental and epileptic encephalopathies and therapeutic implications. Epilepsy Res 2021; 172:106588. [PMID: 33721708 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2021.106588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the potential involvement of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Specifically, the role of innate immunity (that includes cytokines and chemokines) has been extensively investigated either in animal models of epilepsy and in clinical settings. Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEE) are a heterogeneous group of epileptic disorders, in which uncontrolled epileptic activity results in cognitive, motor and behavioral impairment. By definition, epilepsy in DEE is poorly controlled by common antiepileptic drugs but may respond to alternative treatments, including steroids and immunomodulatory drugs. In this review, we will focus on how cytokines and chemokines play a role in the pathogenesis of DEE and why expanding our knowledge about the role of neuroinflammation in DEE may be crucial to develop new and effective targeted therapeutic strategies to prevent seizure recurrence and developmental regression.
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13
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Sim YY, Nyam KL. Hibiscus cannabinus L. (kenaf) studies: Nutritional composition, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and potential applications. Food Chem 2020; 344:128582. [PMID: 33199120 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The electronic database was searched up to July 2020, using keywords, kenaf and roselle, chemical constituents of kenaf and roselle, therapeutic uses of kenaf and roselle. Journals, books and conference proceedings were also searched. Investigations of pharmacological activities of kenaf revealed that this edible plant exhibits a broad range of therapeutic potential including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antityrosinase, anticancer, antihyperlipidemia, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activities. Kenaf also showed versatile utility as a functional ingredient in food, folk medicine, and animal nutritions, as well as in nanotechnology processes. The exploitation of underexploited kenaf by-products can be a significant part of waste management from an economic and environmental point of view. In addition, kenaf showed comparable nutritional, phytochemical, and pharmacological properties with Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle). This review has important implications for further investigations and applications of kenaf in food and pharmaceuticals industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yi Sim
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kar Lin Nyam
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Chugani HT, Kumar A. Neuroinflammation in Children With Infantile Spasms: A Prospective Study Before and After Treatment With Acthar Gel (Repository Corticotropin Injection). J Child Neurol 2020; 35:808-812. [PMID: 32576069 DOI: 10.1177/0883073820932710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The selective effectiveness of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in treating infantile spasms suggests an underlying neuroinflammation. Because neuroinflammation is mediated by activated microglia, which express translocator protein (TSPO), we imaged neuroinflammation in children with infantile spasms using positron emission tomography (PET) with 11C-PK11195 (PK), which selectively binds to TSPO. Children were studied prospectively before and following treatment with Acthar Gel (repository corticotropin injection). We hypothesized that PK-PET would show neuroinflammation (increased PET uptake) in cortical and/or subcortical structures before treatment, and that this inflammation will be abolished/reduced following Acthar Gel treatment. Eight children with infantile spasms (5 males; mean age 1.8±1.1, range 0.9-4.1 years) were recruited. After clinical and video electroencephalograph (EEG) evaluation and dynamic PK-PET scan, children underwent treatment with Acthar Gel over 4 weeks, followed by repeat clinical evaluation/video-EEG 2 weeks after initiation of treatment and repeat PK-PET 2 weeks after treatment completion. Visual and quantitative analysis of PK-PET scans were performed. We calculated regional binding potential (measure of receptor-ligand binding) using a reference tissue model. Focal areas of increased PK-binding were found in the pretreatment PK-PET in 5 children. Following treatment, these increases were either reduced or normalized and were associated with cessation (n=4) or significant reduction (n=1) of spasms and complete disappearance of hypsarrhythmia. One child showed increased binding potential in basal ganglia and thalamus, despite normalization of cortical binding potential; however, these increases were likely associated with death-related causes. This study suggests Acthar Gel-responsive neuroinflammatory changes in children with infantile spasms, supporting a potential role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of infantile spasms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry T Chugani
- Department of Neurology, 5894NYU School of Medicine and the NYU Langone Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Departments of Pediatrics and Radiology, Children's Hospital of Michigan, 198459Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
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Pavone P, Polizzi A, Marino SD, Corsello G, Falsaperla R, Marino S, Ruggieri M. West syndrome: a comprehensive review. Neurol Sci 2020; 41:3547-3562. [PMID: 32827285 PMCID: PMC7655587 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-020-04600-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Since its first clinical description (on his son) by William James West (1793–1848) in 1841, and the definition of the classical triad of (1) infantile spasms; (2) hypsarrhythmia, and (3) developmental arrest or regression as “West syndrome”, new and relevant advances have been recorded in this uncommon disorder. New approaches include terminology of clinical spasms (e.g., infantile (IS) vs. epileptic spasms (ES)), variety of clinical and electroencephalographic (EEG) features (e.g., typical ictal phenomena without EEG abnormalities), burden of developmental delay, spectrum of associated genetic abnormalities, pathogenesis, treatment options, and related outcome and prognosis. Aside the classical manifestations, IS or ES may present with atypical electroclinical phenotypes (e.g., subtle spasms; modified hypsarrhythmia) and may have their onset outside infancy. An increasing number of genes, proteins, and signaling pathways play crucial roles in the pathogenesis. This condition is currently regarded as a spectrum of disorders: the so-called infantile spasm syndrome (ISs), in association with other causal factors, including structural, infectious, metabolic, syndromic, and immunologic events, all acting on a genetic predisposing background. Hormonal therapy and ketogenic diet are widely used also in combination with (classical and recent) pharmacological drugs. Biologically targeted and gene therapies are increasingly studied. The present narrative review searched in seven electronic databases (primary MeSH terms/keywords included West syndrome, infantile spasms and infantile spasms syndrome and were coupled to 25 secondary clinical, EEG, therapeutic, outcomes, and associated conditions terms) including MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central, Web of Sciences, Pubmed, Scopus, and OMIM to highlight the past knowledge and more recent advances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piero Pavone
- Unit of Clinical Pediatrics, AOU "Policlinico", PO "G. Rodolico", University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Agata Polizzi
- Chair of Pediatrics, Department of Educational Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Simona Domenica Marino
- Unit of Pediatrics, Neonatology and Neonatal Intensive Care, and Pediatric Emergency, AOU "Policlinico", PO "San Marco", University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Giovanni Corsello
- Unit of Pediatrics and Neonatal Intensive Therapy, Department of Promotion of Maternal and Infantile and Internal Medicine Health, and Specialist Excellence "G. D'Alessandro", University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Raffaele Falsaperla
- Unit of Pediatrics and Neonatal Intensive Therapy, Department of Promotion of Maternal and Infantile and Internal Medicine Health, and Specialist Excellence "G. D'Alessandro", University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Silvia Marino
- Unit of Pediatrics, Neonatology and Neonatal Intensive Care, and Pediatric Emergency, AOU "Policlinico", PO "San Marco", University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Martino Ruggieri
- Unit of Rare Diseases of the Nervous System in Childhood, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pediatrics and Child Neuropsychiatry, University of Catania, AOU "Policlinico", PO "G. Rodolico", Via S. Sofia, 87, 95128, Catania, Italy.
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Siehr MS, Massey CA, Noebels JL. Arx expansion mutation perturbs cortical development by augmenting apoptosis without activating innate immunity in a mouse model of X-linked infantile spasms syndrome. Dis Model Mech 2020; 13:dmm042515. [PMID: 32033960 PMCID: PMC7132796 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.042515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
X-linked infantile spasms syndrome (ISSX) is a clinically devastating developmental epileptic encephalopathy with life-long impact. Arx(GCG)10+7 , a mouse model of the most common triplet-repeat expansion mutation of ARX, exhibits neonatal spasms, electrographic phenotypes and abnormal migration of GABAergic interneuron subtypes. Neonatal presymptomatic treatment with 17β-estradiol (E2) in Arx(GCG)10+7 reduces spasms and modifies progression of epilepsy. Cortical pathology during this period, a crucial point for clinical intervention in ISSX, has largely been unexplored, and the pathogenic cellular defects that are targeted by early interventions are unknown. In the first postnatal week, we identified a transient wave of elevated apoptosis in Arx(GCG)10+7 mouse cortex that is non-Arx cell autonomous, since mutant Arx-immunoreactive (Arx+) cells are not preferentially impacted by cell death. NeuN+ (also known as Rbfox3) survival was also not impacted, suggesting a vulnerable subpopulation in the immature Arx(GCG)10+7 cortex. Inflammatory processes during this period might explain this transient elevation in apoptosis; however, transcriptomic and immunohistochemical profiling of several markers of inflammation revealed no innate immune activation in Arx(GCG)10+7 cortex. Neither neonatal E2 hormone therapy, nor ACTH(1-24), the frontline clinical therapy for ISSX, diminished the augmented apoptosis in Arx(GCG)10+7 , but both rescued neocortical Arx+ cell density. Since early E2 treatment effectively prevents seizures in this model, enhanced apoptosis does not solely account for the seizure phenotype, but may contribute to other aberrant brain function in ISSX. However, since both hormone therapies, E2 and ACTH(1-24), elevate the density of cortical Arx+-interneurons, their early therapeutic role in other neurological disorders hallmarked by interneuronopathy should be explored.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meagan S Siehr
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Cory A Massey
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Noebels
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Kothur K, Bandodkar S, Wienholt L, Chu S, Pope A, Gill D, Dale RC. Etiology is the key determinant of neuroinflammation in epilepsy: Elevation of cerebrospinal fluid cytokines and chemokines in febrile infection‐related epilepsy syndrome and febrile status epilepticus. Epilepsia 2019; 60:1678-1688. [DOI: 10.1111/epi.16275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Kothur
- Neuroimmunology Group Kids Neuroscience Centre The University of Sydney Sydney New South Wales Australia
- T. Y. Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery The Children's Hospital at Westmead Westmead New South Wales Australia
| | - Sushil Bandodkar
- Department of Biochemistry The Children's Hospital at Westmead Westmead New South Wales Australia
| | - Louise Wienholt
- Department of Clinical Immunology Royal Prince Alfred Hospital Camperdown New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephanie Chu
- Department of Clinical Immunology Royal Prince Alfred Hospital Camperdown New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alun Pope
- Eastern Health Clinical School Monash University Clayton Victoria Australia
| | - Deepak Gill
- Neuroimmunology Group Kids Neuroscience Centre The University of Sydney Sydney New South Wales Australia
- T. Y. Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery The Children's Hospital at Westmead Westmead New South Wales Australia
| | - Russell C. Dale
- Neuroimmunology Group Kids Neuroscience Centre The University of Sydney Sydney New South Wales Australia
- T. Y. Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery The Children's Hospital at Westmead Westmead New South Wales Australia
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Saletti PG, Ali I, Casillas-Espinosa PM, Semple BD, Lisgaras CP, Moshé SL, Galanopoulou AS. In search of antiepileptogenic treatments for post-traumatic epilepsy. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 123:86-99. [PMID: 29936231 PMCID: PMC6309524 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) is diagnosed in 20% of individuals with acquired epilepsy, and can impact significantly the quality of life due to the seizures and other functional or cognitive and behavioral outcomes of the traumatic brain injury (TBI) and PTE. There is no available antiepileptogenic or disease modifying treatment for PTE. Animal models of TBI and PTE have been developed, offering useful insights on the value of inflammatory, neurodegenerative pathways, hemorrhages and iron accumulation, calcium channels and other target pathways that could be used for treatment development. Most of the existing preclinical studies test efficacy towards pathologies of functional recovery after TBI, while a few studies are emerging testing the effects towards induced or spontaneous seizures. Here we review the existing preclinical trials testing new candidate treatments for TBI sequelae and PTE, and discuss future directions for efforts aiming at developing antiepileptogenic and disease-modifying treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia G Saletti
- Saul R. Korey Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Developmental Epilepsy, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Idrish Ali
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Pablo M Casillas-Espinosa
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Bridgette D Semple
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Christos Panagiotis Lisgaras
- Saul R. Korey Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Developmental Epilepsy, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Solomon L Moshé
- Saul R. Korey Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Developmental Epilepsy, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA; Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Laboratory of Developmental Epilepsy, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Einstein/Montefiore Epilepsy Center, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Einstein/Montefiore Epilepsy Center, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Aristea S Galanopoulou
- Saul R. Korey Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Developmental Epilepsy, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA; Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Laboratory of Developmental Epilepsy, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Einstein/Montefiore Epilepsy Center, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA.
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Repetitive Diffuse Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Causes an Atypical Astrocyte Response and Spontaneous Recurrent Seizures. J Neurosci 2019; 39:1944-1963. [PMID: 30665946 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1067-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Focal traumatic brain injury (TBI) induces astrogliosis, a process essential to protecting uninjured brain areas from secondary damage. However, astrogliosis can cause loss of astrocyte homeostatic functions and possibly contributes to comorbidities such as posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE). Scar-forming astrocytes seal focal injuries off from healthy brain tissue. It is these glial scars that are associated with epilepsy originating in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. However, the vast majority of human TBIs also present with diffuse brain injury caused by acceleration-deceleration forces leading to tissue shearing. The resulting diffuse tissue damage may be intrinsically different from focal lesions that would trigger glial scar formation. Here, we used mice of both sexes in a model of repetitive mild/concussive closed-head TBI, which only induced diffuse injury, to test the hypothesis that astrocytes respond uniquely to diffuse TBI and that diffuse TBI is sufficient to cause PTE. Astrocytes did not form scars and classic astrogliosis characterized by upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein was limited. Surprisingly, an unrelated population of atypical reactive astrocytes was characterized by the lack of glial fibrillary acidic protein expression, rapid and sustained downregulation of homeostatic proteins and impaired astrocyte coupling. After a latency period, a subset of mice developed spontaneous recurrent seizures reminiscent of PTE in human TBI patients. Seizing mice had larger areas of atypical astrocytes compared with nonseizing mice, suggesting that these atypical astrocytes might contribute to epileptogenesis after diffuse TBI.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of acquired epilepsies. Reactive astrocytes have long been associated with seizures and epilepsy in patients, particularly after focal/lesional brain injury. However, most TBIs also include nonfocal, diffuse injuries. Here, we showed that repetitive diffuse TBI is sufficient for the development of spontaneous recurrent seizures in a subset of mice. We identified an atypical response of astrocytes induced by diffuse TBI characterized by the rapid loss of homeostatic proteins and lack of astrocyte coupling while reactive astrocyte markers or glial scar formation was absent. Areas with atypical astrocytes were larger in animals that later developed seizures suggesting that this response may be one root cause of epileptogenesis after diffuse TBI.
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Cerri C, Caleo M, Bozzi Y. Chemokines as new inflammatory players in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2017; 136:77-83. [PMID: 28780154 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2017.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A large series of clinical and experimental studies supports a link between inflammation and epilepsy, indicating that inflammatory processes within the brain are important contributors to seizure recurrence and precipitation. Systemic inflammation can precipitate seizures in children suffering from epileptic encephalopathies, and hallmarks of a chronic inflammatory state have been found in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Research performed on animal models of epilepsy further corroborates the idea that seizures upregulate inflammatory mediators, which in turn may enhance brain excitability and neuronal degeneration. Several inflammatory molecules and their signaling pathways have been implicated in epilepsy. Among these, the chemokine pathway has increasingly gained attention. Chemokines are small cytokines secreted by blood cells, which act as chemoattractants for leukocyte migration. Recent studies indicate that chemokines and their receptors are also produced by brain cells, and are involved in various neurological disorders including epilepsy. In this review, we will focus on a subset of pro-inflammatory chemokines (namely CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, CX3CL1) and their receptors, and their increasingly recognized role in seizure control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Cerri
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124, Pisa, Italy; Fondazione Umberto Veronesi, Piazza Velasca 5, 20122 Milano, Italy.
| | - Matteo Caleo
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Yuri Bozzi
- CNR Neuroscience Institute, via G. Moruzzi 1, 56124, Pisa, Italy; Neurodevelopmental Disorders Research Group, Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, via Sommarive 9, 38123 Povo, Trento, Italy.
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