Chemical and pharmacological research on the polyphenol acids isolated from Danshen: A review of salvianolic acids

3D bioprinting of Salvianolic acid B-sodium alginate-gelatin skin scaffolds promotes diabetic wound repair via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and proangiogenic effects

In patients with diabetic wounds, wound healing is impaired due to the presence of persistent oxidative stress, an altered inflammatory response, and impaired angiogenesis and epithelization. Salvianolic acid B (SAB), which is derived from the Chinese medicinal plant Salvia miltiorrhiza, has been found to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and proangiogenic effects. Previous studies have used 3D bioprinting technology incorporating sodium alginate (SA) and gelatin (Gel) as basic biomaterials to successfully produce artificial skin. In the current study, 3D bioprinting technology was used to incorporate SAB into SA-Gel to form a novel SAB-SA-Gel composite porous scaffold. The morphological characteristics, physicochemical characteristics, biocompatibility, and SAB release profile of the SAB-SA-Gel scaffolds were evaluated in vitro. In addition, the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and proangiogenic abilities of the SAB-SA-Gel scaffolds were evaluated in cells and in a rat model. Analysis demonstrated that 1.0 wt% (the percentage of SAB in the total weight of the solution containing SA and Gel) SAB-SA-Gel scaffolds had strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and proangiogenic properties both in cells and in the rat model. The 1.0% SAB-SA-Gel scaffold reduced the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and interluekin-1β and increased the expression of transforming growth factor-β. In addition, this scaffold removed excessive reactive oxygen species by increasing the expression of superoxide dismutase, thereby protecting fibroblasts from injury. The scaffold increased the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, accelerated granulation tissue regeneration and collagen deposition, and promoted wound healing. These findings suggest that this innovative scaffold may have promise as a simple and efficient approach to managing diabetic wound repair.

Chinese herbal medicines: The modulator of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease targeting oxidative stress

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Plants are a natural treasure trove; their secondary metabolites participate in several pharmacological processes, making them a crucial component in the synthesis of novel pharmaceuticals and serving as a reserve resource foundation in this process. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with the risk of progression to hepatitis and liver cancer. The "Treatise on Febrile Diseases," "Compendium of Materia Medica," and "Thousand Golden Prescriptions" have listed herbal remedies to treat liver diseases.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Chinese herbal medicines have been widely used for the prevention and treatment of NAFLD owing to their efficacy and low side effects. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during NAFLD, and the impact and potential mechanism of ROS on the pathogenesis of NAFLD are discussed in this review. Furthermore, common foods and herbs that can be used to prevent NAFLD, as well as the structure-activity relationships and potential mechanisms, are discussed.

METHODS

Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI database, Google Scholar, and WanFang database were searched for natural products that have been used to treat or prevent NAFLD in the past five years. The primary search was performed using the following keywords in different combinations in full articles: NAFLD, herb, natural products, medicine, and ROS. More than 400 research papers and review articles were found and analyzed in this review.

RESULTS

By classifying and discussing the literature, we obtained 86 herbaceous plants, 28 of which were derived from food and 58 from Chinese herbal medicines. The mechanism of NAFLD was proposed through experimental studies on thirteen natural compounds (quercetin, hesperidin, rutin, curcumin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, salvianolic acid B, paeoniflorin, ginsenoside Rg1, ursolic acid, berberine, honokiol, emodin). The occurrence and progression of NAFLD could be prevented by natural antioxidants through several pathways to prevent ROS accumulation and reduce hepatic cell injuries caused by excessive ROS.

CONCLUSION

This review summarizes the natural products and routinely used herbs (prescription) in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD. Firstly, the mechanisms by which natural products improve NAFLD through antioxidant pathways are elucidated. Secondly, the potential of traditional Chinese medicine theory in improving NAFLD is discussed, highlighting the safety of food-medicine homology and the broader clinical potential of multi-component formulations in improving NAFLD. Aiming to provide theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of NAFLD.

Miltiradiene Production by Cytoplasmic Metabolic Engineering in Nicotiana benthamiana

Plant natural products are important sources of innovative drugs, but the extraction and isolation of medicinal natural products from plants is challenging as these compounds have complex structures that are difficult to synthesize chemically. Therefore, utilizing heterologous expression systems to produce medicinal natural products in plants is a novel, environmentally friendly, and sustainable method. In this study, Nicotiana benthamiana was used as the plant platform to successfully produce miltiradiene, the key intermediate of tanshinones, which are the bioactive constituents of the Chinese medicinal plant Salvia miltiorrhiza. The yield of miltiradiene was increased through cytoplasmic engineering strategies combined with the enhancement of isoprenoid precursors. Additionally, we discovered that overexpressing SmHMGR alone accelerated apoptosis in tobacco leaves. Due to the richer membrane systems and cofactors in tobacco compared to yeast, tobacco is more conducive to the expression of plant enzymes. Therefore, this study lays the foundation for dissecting the tanshinone biosynthetic pathway in tobacco, which is essential for subsequent research. Additionally, it highlights the potential of N. benthamiana as an alternative platform for the production of natural products in plants.

Bioactive components and molecular mechanisms of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge in promoting blood circulation to remove blood stasis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (SM) is an outstanding herbal medicine with various traditional effects, especially promoting blood circulation to remove blood stasis. It has been widely used for centuries to treat blood stasis syndrome (BSS)-related diseases. BSS is one of the basic pathological syndromes of diseases such as cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in traditional East Asian medicine, which is characterized by disturbance of blood circulation. However, the bioactive components and mechanisms of SM in the treatment of BSS have not been systematically reviewed. Therefore, this article outlines the anti-BSS effects of bioactive components of SM, concentrating on the molecular mechanisms.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To summarize the bioactive components of SM against BSS and highlight its potential targets and signaling pathways, hoping to provide a modern biomedical perspective to understand the efficacy of SM on enhancing blood circulation to remove blood stasis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed to retrieve articles published in the last two decades on bioactive components of SM used for BSS treatment from the online electronic medical literature database (PubMed).

RESULTS

Phenolic acids and tanshinones in SM are the main bioactive components in the treatment of BSS, including but not limited to salvianolic acid B, tanshinone IIA, salvianolic acid A, cryptotanshinone, Danshensu, dihydrotanshinone, rosmarinic acid, protocatechuic aldehyde, and caffeic acid. They protect vascular endothelial cells by alleviating oxidative stress and inflammatory damage and regulating of NO/ET-1 levels. They also enhance anticoagulant and fibrinolytic capacity, inhibit platelet activation and aggregation, and dilate blood vessels. Moreover, lowering blood lipids and improving blood rheological properties may be the underlying mechanisms of their anti-BSS. More notably, these compounds play an anti-BSS role by mediating multiple signaling pathways such as Nrf2/HO-1, TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/eNOS, MAPKs (p38, ERK, and JNK), and Ca2+/K+ channels.

CONCLUSIONS

Both phenolic acids and tanshinones in SM may act synergistically to target different signaling pathways to achieve the effect of promoting blood circulation.

Salvianolic acid B attenuates inflammation and prevent pathologic fibrosis by inhibiting CD36-mediated activation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway in frozen shoulder

Frozen shoulder (FS) is characterized by pain and limited range of motion (ROM). Inflammation and fibrosis are accepted as main pathologic processes associated with the development of FS. However, the intrinsic mechanisms underlying pathologic fibrosis remain unclear. We aimed to elucidate the key molecules involved in pathologic fibrosis and explore new therapeutic targets for FS. Synovial fibroblasts isolated from patient biopsies were identified using immunofluorescence. Western blotting, RT-qPCR, cell adhesion tests, and would-healing assays were used to evaluate the fibrosis-related functions of synovial fibroblasts. Elevated cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) expression was detected in FS using Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Salvianolic acid b (SaB) inhibited CD36, blocking synovial fibroblast-induced inflammation and fibrosis. Our RNA-seq data showed that knocking down CD36 dramatically impaired the capacity of synovial fibroblasts for cell adhesion and that the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway may be crucial to the fibrotic process of FS. By up-regulating CD36 and inhibiting the phosphorylation of Akt, we demonstrated that CD36 promotes pathologic fibrosis by activating the PI3k-Akt pathway. Finally, rats treated with SaB had improved ROM and less collagen fiber deposition than the FS model group. Conclusion: SaB attenuates inflammation and inhibited the CD36-mediated activation of the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway to block pathologic fibrosis of FS in vitro and in vivo models.

A Review of the Potential Benefits of Herbal Medicines, Small Molecules of Natural Sources, and Supplements for Health Promotion in Lupus Conditions

The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help people were limited. The present text reviews the ethnobotanical and pharmacological aspects of medicinal plants and purified molecules from natural sources with efficacy against lupus conditions. Among these molecules are artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol, baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides of paeony (TGP), and other supplements such as fatty acids and vitamins. In addition, medicinal plants, herbal remedies, mushrooms, and fungi that have been investigated for their effects on different lupus conditions through clinical trials, in vivo, in vitro, or in silico studies are reviewed. A special emphasis was placed on clinical trials, active phytochemicals, and their mechanisms of action. This review can be helpful for researchers in designing new goal-oriented studies. It can also help practitioners gain insight into recent updates on supplements that might help patients suffering from lupus conditions.

Effects of cadmium on the synthesis of active ingredients in Salvia miltiorrhiza

Cadmium (Cd) could pose threats to human health by affecting Salvia miltiorrhiza (SM) safety. Cd enrichment trait and its effects on the active ingredient synthesis in SM remain unknown. Here we investigated the Cd concentration using ICP-MS-based method, physiologies (contents of malondialdehyde and proline, and activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase [POD], and catalase [CAT]), and LC-MS/MS-based metabolites of SM under 25, 50, and 100 mg kg^-1 Cd stress. The results revealed that Cd concentrations, as it rose in soil, increased in roots and leaves of SM with transfer factors and bioconcentration factors below 1 in Cd-treated groups; POD and CAT activities and proline content increased and then declined. Amino acids and organic acids (especially d-glutamine [d-Gln], l-aspartic acid [l-Asp], l-phenylalanine [l-Phe], l-tyrosine [l-Tyr], geranylgeranyl-PP [GGPP], and rosmarinic acid [RA]) contributed more in discriminating SM roots of different groups. GGPP was negatively related to l-Tyr and l-Phe, and RA was positively related to d-Gln and l-Asp in SM. These results revealed that SM belonged to a non-Cd-hyperaccumulator with most Cd accumulated in roots, Cd could enhance phenolic acid synthesis via regulating amino acid metabolism and might inhibit tanshinone synthesis by declining the GGPP content, and proline, POD, and CAT played vital roles in resisting Cd stress. These provided new ideas and theoretical basis for further study on medical plants' response to heavy metals.

Salviae miltiorrhiza against human lung cancer: A review of its mechanism (Review)

Lung cancer is one of the commonest malignant tumors in the world today, causing millions of mortalities every year. New methods to treat lung cancer are urgently needed. Salviae miltiorrhiza Bunge is a common Chinese medicine, often used for promoting blood circulation. In the past 20 years, Salviae miltiorrhiza has made significant progress in the treatment of lung cancer and is considered to be one of the most promising methods to fight against the disease. A great amount of research has shown that the mechanism of Salviae miltiorrhiza against human lung cancer mainly includes inhibiting the proliferation of lung cancer cells, promoting lung cancer cell apoptosis, inducing cell autophagy, regulating immunity and resisting angiogenesis. Research has shown that Salviae miltiorrhiza has certain effects on the resistance to chemotherapy drugs. The present review discussed the status and prospects of Salviae miltiorrhiza against human lung cancer.

Thymus Species from Romanian Spontaneous Flora as Promising Source of Phenolic Secondary Metabolites with Health-Related Benefits

Wild thyme aerial parts (Serpylli herba) are recognized as a valuable herbal product with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects. Although pharmacopoeial regulations allow its collection exclusively from Thymus serpyllum, substitution with other species is frequent in current practice. This study analyzed the phenolic composition, antioxidant, and enzyme-inhibitory and antimicrobial activity of the hydroethanolic extracts obtained from five Romanian wild thyme species (Thymus alpestris, T. glabrescens, T. panonicus, T. pulcherimus and T. pulegioides). The analysis of individual phenolic constituents was performed through LC-ESI-DAD/MS², while for the in vitro evaluation of antioxidant potential, TEAC, FRAP, DPPH, TBARS and OxHLIA assays were employed. The anti-enzymatic potential was tested in vitro against tyrosinase, α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase. High rosmarinic acid contents were quantified in all species (20.06 ± 0.32-80.49 ± 0.001 mg/g dry extract); phenolic acids derivatives (including salvianolic acids) were confirmed as the principal metabolites of T. alpestris and T. glabrescens, while eriodictyol-O-di-hexoside was found exclusively in T. alpestris. All species showed strong antioxidant potential and moderate anti-enzymatic effect against α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase, showing no anti-tyrosinase activity. This is the first detailed report on the chemical and biological profile of T. alpestris collected from Romanian spontaneous flora.

Network pharmacology and experimental study of phenolic acids in salvia miltiorrhiza bung in preventing ischemic stroke

At present, the preventive effect of ischemic stroke is not ideal, and the preventive drugs are limited. Danshen, the dried root of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge, is a common medicinal herb in Traditional Chinese Medicine, which has been used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases for many years. Phenolic Acids extracted from danshen, which showed multiple biological activities, have been developed as an injection for the treatment of ischemic stroke. However, its preventive effect on ischemic stroke has not been fully reported. The current study aimed to identify the potential active phenolic acids for the prevention of ischemic stroke and explore its mechanism using network pharmacology and experimental analyses. The targets of phenolic acids and ischemic stroke were obtained from public databases. Network pharmacology predicted that 35 kinds of phenolic acids had 201 core targets with ischemic stroke. The core prevention targets of ischemic stroke include IL-6, AKT1, VEGFA, etc. The signaling pathways involved in core targets include AGE-RAGE signaling pathway, HIF-1 signaling pathway, and cAMP signaling pathways, etc. Then, the antiplatelet effect of phenolic acids was screened by in vitro antiplatelet experiment. Our results showed that phenolic acids have a good inhibitory effect on ADP-induced platelet aggregation and salvianolic acid A had a good antiplatelet effect. We further demonstrated that SAA preventive administration reduced neurobehavioral scores, decreased infarct size, and protected tight junction proteins in autologous thrombus stroke model. These studies not only shed light on the potential mechanisms of phenolic acids active components on ischemic stroke, but also provided theoretical and experimental information for the development of new medicines from Danshen for the prevention of ischemic stroke. In addition, our results suggest that SAA has the potential to be a candidate for ischemic stroke prevention drug.

Insights into accumulation of active ingredients and rhizosphere microorganisms between Salvia miltiorrhiza and S. castanea

Salvia miltiorrhiza is an important traditional herbal medicine, and its extracts could be used for treating cardiovascular disease. Although these medicinal compounds are functionally similar, their wild relative, S. castanea, produces significantly different concentrations of these compounds. The reason for their differences is still unknown. In a series of soil and plant-based analyses, we explored and compared the rhizosphere microbiome of S. miltiorrhiza and S. castanea. To further investigate the geographical distribution of S. castanea, MaxEnt models were used to predict the future suitable habitat areas of S. castanea in China. Results revealed the distributions and structure of the rhizosphere microbial community of S. miltiorrhiza and S. castanea at different times. In addition, differences in altitude and soil moisture resulting from changes in climate and geographical location are also critical environmental factors in the distribution of S. castanea. The findings of this study increase our understanding of plant adaptation to their geographical environment through secondary metabolites. It also highlights the complex interplay between rhizospheric factors and plant metabolism, which provides the theoretical basis for the cultivation of S. miltiorrhiza and the use of S. castanea resources.

Material basis and integrative pharmacology of danshen decoction in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are among the primary and predominant threats to human health with increasing incidence. Danshen Decoction (DSD) as an adjuvant therapy can benefit CVDs patients by improving clinical efficacy.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to identify the active components and potential pharmacological mechanisms of DSD by combining mass spectrometry with a network pharmacology strategy and to review the use of DSD in the treatment of CVDs.

METHOD

First, the composition of DSD was analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Second, the network pharmacology method was used to elucidate the underlying material basis and possible pharmacological mechanism of DSD for the treatment of CVDs. Finally, clinical and experimental studies on DSD in the past ten years were retrieved from the PubMed and CNKI database, and the content of these studies was used to summarize the latest progress in DSD treatment of CVDs.

OUTCOME

A total of 35 compounds were found in DSD by manual identification from the analysis of MS, which may be the material basis for the therapeutic effect of DSD. After taking the intersection of 2086 targets related to CVDs, these 35 compounds are considered to play a role in the treatment of CVDs through 210 targets including signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), sarcoma (SRC) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit (PIK3R), and a total of 168 signaling pathways were involved in the regulation of CVDs by DSD, including PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, Alzheimer disease, and Rap1 signaling pathway. A total of 29 clinical studies using DSD in the treatment of CVDs were included in the literature review, and these studies showed the positive significance of DSD as adjuvant therapy, while 14 experimental studies included in the literature review also demonstrated the effectiveness of DSD in the treatment of CVDs.

CONCLUSION

DSD plays a role in the treatment of CVDs through a variety of active ingredients. Large-scale clinical research and more in-depth experimental research will help to further reveal the mechanism of DSD in the treatment of CVDs.

Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics of salvianolic acid B in healthy Chinese volunteers: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 1 clinical trial

Background: Salvianolic acid B (Sal B) is one of the main active ingredients of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge. In China, many traditional Chinese medicines have been modified into injections for higher bioavailability and better efficacy. Salvianolic acid injection has been widely used in the clinic. Objective: This phase 1, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single-center study aimed to evaluate the safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics of Sal B injection in healthy Chinese volunteers. Methods: For the single-ascending-dose study, forty-seven healthy volunteers were randomly divided into 25, 75, 150, 200, 250, and 300 mg groups. For the multiple-ascending-dose study, sixteen healthy volunteers were randomly divided into 150 and 300 mg groups. In each group, volunteers were treated with Sal B or placebo randomly. Their safety was evaluated by a skin test, physical examination, vital sign, laboratory examination, 12-lead electrocardiogram, Holter, and clinical symptoms and signs. Blood samples were collected in 75, 150, and 300 mg single-ascending-dose study groups and 150 mg multiple-ascending-dose study groups to determine the concentration of salvianolic acid B. Results: In single-ascending-dose study groups, there were 41 adverse events in 24 cases (51.1%, 24/47). In multiple-ascending-dose study groups, there were 13 adverse events in eight cases (50.0%, 8/16). Sixty-six volunteers received the skin test, and three of them were excluded because of the positive result. Adverse events related to the treatment included increased alanine aminotransferase (4.0%), increased bilirubin (2.0%), increased creatinine kinase-MB (2.0%), increased brain natriuretic peptide (8.0%), increased urine N-acetyl-β-D-glucosidase (4.0%), dizziness (2.0%), and chest discomfort (2.0%). No serious adverse events occurred. No volunteers withdrew from the trial. Peak plasma concentration and the area under the plasma concentration-time curve of salvianolic acid B progressively increased in a dose-dependent manner in 75, 150, and 300 mg single-ascending-dose study groups. There was no accumulation after 5 consecutive days of administration of 150 mg salvianolic acid B. Conclusion: Salvianolic acid B injections administered up to 300 mg in a single dose and 250 mg for 5 consecutive days showed excellent safety and tolerability in healthy Chinese volunteers. Clinical Trial Registration: www.chinadrugtrials.org.cn, identifier CTR20192236.

Salvianolic acid B suppresses hepatic stellate cell activation and liver fibrosis by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway via miR-6499-3p/LncRNA-ROR

BACKGROUND

Long non-coding RNA (LncRNAs) have been reported to play an important role in liver fibrosis and are closely associated with hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. We previously found that salvianolic acid B (Sal B) improves liver fibrosis by regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway. However, whether the LncRNA, regulator of reprogramming (LncRNA-ROR) plays a role in Sal B-mediated anti-fibrosis effects via the NF-κB signaling pathway remain unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Sal B on HSC activation and liver fibrosis and investigate its mechanism from the perspective of LncRNA-ROR-mediated NF-κB signaling pathways.

METHODS

LX-2 and T6 cell lines were cultured. Animal models of liver fibrosis were established using CCl4 in male BALB/c mice. Primary HSCs were isolated from mice and cultured. Serum biochemical and liver histological analyses were performed to evaluate the effects of Sal B on liver fibrosis. The index of HSC activation and the expression of LncRNA-ROR, microRNAs (miRNAs), and inflammatory factors were determined by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or immunofluorescence staining. Cell proliferation was measured by a Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). NF-κB signaling-associated protein levels were assessed using western blotting or immunofluorescence staining. A luciferase reporter assay was used to detect transcription activity.

RESULTS

In this study, a lower level of LncRNA-ROR was found during Sal B attenuating HSC activation in HSCs. Mechanistically, Sal B impeded the NF-κB signaling pathway to inhibit HSC proliferation and activation by downregulating LncRNA-ROR. Additionally, Sal B upregulated miR-6499-3p to target LncRNA-ROR for degradation. Functionally, Sal B treatment ameliorated CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in mice by inhibiting HSC activation.

CONCLUSION

Sal B suppresses HSC activation and liver fibrosis via regulation of miR-6499-3p/LncRNA-ROR-mediated NF-κB signaling pathway. These results reveal a new molecular mechanism of Sal B on liver fibrosis from the insight of LncRNAs.

Doxorubicin-Induced Platelet Activation and Clearance Relieved by Salvianolic Acid Compound: Novel Mechanism and Potential Therapy for Chemotherapy-Associated Thrombosis and Thrombocytopenia

Doxorubicin (Dox) is a widely utilized chemotherapeutic; however, it carries side effects, including drug-induced immune thrombocytopenia (DITP) and increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). Currently, the mechanisms for Dox-associated DITP and VTE are poorly understood, and an effective inhibitor to relieve these complications remains to be developed. In this study, we found that Dox significantly induced platelet activation and enhanced platelet phagocytosis by macrophages and accelerated platelet clearance. Importantly, we determined that salvianolic acid C (SAC), a water-soluble compound derived from Danshen root traditionally used to treat cardiovascular diseases, inhibited Dox-induced platelet activation more effectively than current standard-of-care anti-platelet drugs aspirin and ticagrelor. Mechanism studies with tyrosine kinase inhibitors indicate contributions of phospholipase C, spleen tyrosine kinase, and protein kinase C signaling pathways in Dox-induced platelet activation. We further demonstrated that Dox enhanced platelet-cancer cell interaction, which was ameliorated by SAC. Taken together, these findings suggest SAC may be a promising therapy to reduce the risk of Dox-induced DITP, VTE, and the repercussions of amplified platelet-cancer interaction in the tumor microenvironment.

Salvianolactone acid A isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice by regulating PPAR-γ

BACKGROUND

Severe inflammation of the lungs results from acute lung injury (ALI), a common life-threatening lung disease with a high mortality rate. The ligand-activated transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ plays essential roles in diverse biological processes including inflammation, metabolism, development, and immune response. Salvianolactone acid A (SA) is a terpenoid derived from the herb Salvia miltiorrhiza. However, there is a scarcity of experimental evidence indicating whether the effect of SA on ALI occurs via PPAR-γ.

METHODS

SA (20 or 40 mg/kg, i.g., 1 time/day) was administered to mice for 3 d, followed by the induction of ALI by intranasal lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 mg/kg). The lung function and levels of inflammation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), immune cells, apoptosis, and PPAR-γ were examined. The antagonistic activity of GW9662 (GW, 1 µM, specific PPAR-γ blocker) and PPAR-γ transfection silencing against SA (10 μM) in BEAS-2B cells induced by LPS (10 μg/ml, 24 h) was also investigated to assess whether the observed effects caused by SA were mediated by PPAR-γ.

RESULTS

The results showed that lung histopathological injury, the B-line, the fluorescence intensity of live small animal, and the biomarkers in BALF or lung in the treatment of SA could regulate significantly. In addition, SA obviously decreased the levels of ROS and apoptosis in the primary lung cells, and MDA, increased the levels of GSH-Px and SOD. SA reduced levels of macrophages and neutrophils. Furthermore, SA reduced the protein levels of Keap-1, Cleaved-caspase-3, Cleaved-caspase-9, p-p65/p65, NLRP3, IL-1β, and upregulated the levels of p-Nrf2/Nrf2, HO-1, Bcl-2/Bax, PPAR-γ, p-AMPK/AMPK in lung tissue. In addition, silencing and inhibition of PPAR-γ effectively decreased the protective effects of SA in BEAS-2B cells induced by LPS, which might indicate that the active molecules of SA regulate ALI via mediation by PPAR-γ, which exhibited that the effect of SA related to PPAR-γ.

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-ALI effects of SA were partially mediated through PPAR-γ signaling. These data provide the molecular justification for the usage of SA in treating ALI and can assist in increasing the comprehensive utilization rate of Salvia miltiorrhiza.

An Ethnopharmaceutical Study on the Hypolipidemic Formulae in Taiwan Issued by Traditional Chinese Medicine Pharmacies

Globally, approximately one-third of ischemic heart diseases are due to hyperlipidemia, which has been shown to cause various metabolic disorders. This study was aimed to disassemble and analyze hypolipidemic formulae sold by traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) pharmacies. Using commonly used statistical parameters in ethnopharmacology, we identified the core drug combination of the hypolipidemic formulae, thereby exploring the strategy by which the Taiwanese people select hypolipidemic drugs. Most important of all, we preserved the inherited knowledge of TCM. We visited 116 TCM pharmacies in Taiwan and collected 91 TCM formulae. The formulae were mainly disassembled by macroscopical identification, and the medicinal materials with a relative frequency of citation (RFC) >0.2 were defined as commonly used medicinal materials. Subsequently, we sorted the information of medicinal materials recorded in the Pharmacopeia, searched for modern pharmacological research on commonly used medicinal materials using PubMed database, and visualized data based on the statistical results. Finally, the core hypolipidemic medicinal materials used in folk medicine were obtained. Of the 91 TCM formulae collected in this study, 80 traditional Chinese medicinal materials were used, belonging to 43 families, predominantly Lamiaceae. Roots were the most commonly used part as a medicinal material. There were 17 commonly used medicinal materials. Based on medicinal records in Pharmacopeia, most flavors and properties were warm and pungent, the majority traditional effects were “tonifying and replenishing” and “blood-regulating.” Besides, the targeted diseases searching from modern pharmacological studies were diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia. The core medicinal materials consisted of Astragalus mongholicus Bunge and Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge, and the core formulae were Bu-Yang-Huan-Wu-Tang and Xie-Fu-Zhu-Yu-Tang. In addition, 7 groups of folk misused medicinal materials were found. Although these TCMs have been used for a long period of time, their hypolipidemic mechanisms remain unclear, and further studies are needed to validate their safety and efficacy.

Effects of Different Processing Methods Based on Different Drying Conditions on the Active Ingredients of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge

Compared to the traditional processing method, fresh processing can significantly enhance the preservation of biologically active ingredients and reduce processing time. This study evaluated the influences of fresh and traditional processing based on different drying conditions (sun drying, oven drying and shade drying) on the active ingredients in the roots and rhizomes of S. miltiorrhiza. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was utilized to determine the contents of six active ingredients in the roots and rhizomes of S. miltiorrhiza. The data were analyzed by fingerprint similarity evaluation, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). The results suggest that compared to the traditional processing method, the fresh processing method may significantly increase the preservation of biologically active ingredients. Furthermore, the findings demonstrated that among the three drying methods under fresh processing conditions, the shade-drying (21.02–26.38%) method is most beneficial for retaining the active ingredients in the roots and rhizomes of S. miltiorrhiza. Moreover, the fingerprint analysis identified 17 common peaks, and the similarity of fingerprints among samples processed by different methods ranged from 0.989 to 1.000. Collectively, these results suggest novel processing methods that may improve the yield of active ingredients for S. miltiorrhiza and may be implemented for industrial production.

Pellets of phospholipids and D-glucose with improved intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability of salvianolic acid B

Salvianolic acid B (SAB) is a widely used cardioprotective agent, while its clinical application was limited by poor intestinal absorption and low oral bioavailability. In this study, SAB phospholipid complex (SP) was first prepared to improve the lipophicity of SAB and then combined with D-glucose to further enhance intestinal absorption. Compared with free SAB, SP or the mixture of SAB and D-glucose, combination of SP and D-glucose showed higher intestinal absorption evidenced by increased effective permeation coefficient (P_eff) in the in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) assay. Subsequently, SP and D-glucose at mass ratio of 1:6, with the highest P_eff of SAB, were chosen for the preparation of complexed pellets to improve oral absorption efficiency of SAB. As expected, the obtained pellets significantly enhanced oral bioavailability of SAB in the pharmacokinetic study characterized by increasing C_max and AUC_0-t of SAB by 14.88-fold and 5.02-fold than free SAB, respectively. In conclusion, combination of D-glucose in SP pellets can effectively improve the intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability of SAB.

Extra virgin olive oil-based phospholipid complex/self-microemulsion enhances oral absorption of salvianolic acid B through inhibition of catechol-O-methyltransferase-mediated metabolism

The oral bioavailability of many phenolic acid drugs is severely limited due to the high hydrophilicity and extensive first-pass effect induced by catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) metabolism. The present study investigated the inhibitory activity of the pharmaceutical excipients of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) against COMT and evaluated the potential of a self-microemulsion loaded with a phospholipid complex containing EVOO for oral absorption enhancement of salvianolic acid B (SAB), a model phenolic acid. In vitro COMT assay showed that EVOO could effectively inhibit enzyme activity in the rat liver cytosol. Next, the SAB phospholipid complex/self-microemulsion containing EVOO (named SP-SME1) was prepared and characterized (particle size, 243.60 ± 6.96 nm and zeta potential, -23.67 ± -1.36 mV). The phospholipid complex/self-microemulsion containing ethyl oleate (EO) (named SP-SME2) was taken as the control group. Compared with free SAB, the apparent permeability coefficient (P_app value) of the two SP-SMEs significantly increased (12.0-fold and 10.90-fold). Pharmacokinetic study demonstrated that the AUC_0-∞ value of SAB for the SP-SME1 group significantly increased by 4.72 and 2.82 times compared to those for free SAB (p < 0.001) and SP-SME2 (p < 0.01), respectively. Moreover, the AUC_0-∞ value of monomethyl-SAB (metabolite of SAB, MMS) for the SP-SME1 group decreased by 0.83 times compared to that for SP-SME2. In conclusion, the EVOO-based phospholipid complex/self-microemulsion greatly enhanced the oral absorption of SAB, which was mainly attributed to the inhibition of COMT activity induced by EVOO.

The mechanism of microglia-mediated immune inflammation in ischemic stroke and the role of natural botanical components in regulating microglia: A review

Ischemic stroke (IS) is one of the most fatal diseases. Neuroimmunity, inflammation, and oxidative stress play important roles in various complex mechanisms of IS. In particular, the early proinflammatory response resulting from the overactivation of resident microglia and the infiltration of circulating monocytes and macrophages in the brain after cerebral ischemia leads to secondary brain injury. Microglia are innate immune cells in the brain that constantly monitor the brain microenvironment under normal conditions. Once ischemia occurs, microglia are activated to produce dual effects of neurotoxicity and neuroprotection, and the balance of the two effects determines the fate of damaged neurons. The activation of microglia is defined as the classical activation (M1 type) or alternative activation (M2 type). M1 type microglia secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic mediators to exacerbate neuronal damage, while M2 type microglia promote a repairing anti-inflammatory response. Fine regulation of M1/M2 microglial activation to minimize damage and maximize protection has important therapeutic value. This review focuses on the interaction between M1/M2 microglia and other immune cells involved in the regulation of IS phenotypic characteristics, and the mechanism of natural plant components regulating microglia after IS, providing novel candidate drugs for regulating microglial balance and IS drug development.

RGD-modified multifunctional nanoparticles encapsulating salvianolic acid A for targeted treatment of choroidal neovascularization

Background

The development of alternative anti-angiogenesis therapy for choroidal neovascularization (CNV) remains a great challenge. Nanoparticle systems have emerged as a new form of drug delivery in ocular diseases. Here, we report the construction and characterization of arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD)-conjugated polyethyleneimine (PEI) as a vehicle to load antioxidant salvianolic acid A (SAA) for targeted anti-angiogenesis therapy of CNV. In this study, PEI was consecutively modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated RGD segments, 3-(4′-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid-Osu (HPAO), and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FI), followed by acetylation of the remaining PEI surface amines to generate the multifunctional PEI vehicle PEI.NHAc-FI-HPAO-(PEG-RGD) (for short, RGD-PEI). The formed RGD-PEI was utilized as an effective vehicle platform to load SAA.

Results

We showed that RGD-PEI/SAA complexes displayed desirable water dispersibility, low cytotoxicity, and sustainable release of SAA under different pH conditions. It could be specifically taken up by retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells which highly expressed ɑ_vβ₅ integrin receptors in vitro and selectively accumulated in CNV lesions in vivo. Moreover, the complexes displayed specific therapeutic efficacy in a mouse model of laser induced CNV, and the slow elimination of the complexes in the vitreous cavity was verified by SPECT imaging after ¹³¹I radiolabeling. The histological examinations further confirmed the biocompatibility of RGD-PEI/SAA.

Conclusions

The results suggest that the designed RGD-PEI/SAA complexes may be a potential alternative anti-angiogenesis therapy for posterior ocular neovascular diseases.

Graphic abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00939-9.

[Salvianolic acid B and its magnesium salt inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection of Vero-E6 cells by blocking spike protein-mediated membrane fusion]

OBJECTIVE

The investigate the inhibitory effects of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) monomer salvianolic acid B (Sal-B) and its magnesium salt Salvia Miltiorrhiza Polyphenolate Injection (ZDDY) against SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro and explore the molecular mechanism.

OBJECTIVE

The anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of Sal-B and ZDDY was assessed using the authentic and pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 infection assay. The antiviral targets of Sal-B were identified by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation. Circular dichroism spectroscopy was used to examine the structural characteristics of HR1 and HR2 regions of SARS-CoV-2 S protein, and the S protein-mediated cell-cell fusion assay was used to evaluate the effect of Sal-B on virus-cell membrane fusion. Flow cytometry was carried out to analyze the effect of Sal-B on the binding of SARS-CoV-2 RBD to hACE2 receptor.

OBJECTIVE

The median effective concentrations (EC50) of Sal-B and ZDDY against SARSCoV-2 infection in Vero-E6 cells were 55.47 μmol/L and 36.07 μg/mL, respectively. Both Sal-B and ZDDY successfully inhibited the entry of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus into the cells that stably expressed human ACE2 (ACE2/293T), with half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 1.69 μmol/L and 24.81 μg/mL, respectively. Sal-B showed a binding affinity of -8.2 kcal/mol to the 6-helix bundle (6-HB) of SARS-CoV-2 S protein. Molecular dynamics simulation showed stable binding between Sal-B and the 6-HB of SARS-CoV-2 S protein at the predicted binding site. Sal-B disturbed the formation of the secondary structure of 6-HB in HR1P/HR2P mixture, resulting in a significantly lowered α-helicity (P < 0.05). Sal-B dose-dependently inhibited SARS-CoV-2 S protein-mediated cell-cell fusion, with an IC50 of 3.33 μmol/L. Sal-B showed no effect on RBD-Fc protein binding to the ACE2 receptor.

OBJECTIVE

Sal-B and its magnesium salt ZDDY can inhibit the entry of SARS-CoV-2 in Vero-E6 cells in vitro by blocking SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-mediated virus-cell membrane fusion.

Plant Phenolics and Extracts in Animal Models of Preeclampsia and Clinical Trials-Review of Perspectives for Novel Therapies

The current health requirements set the direction in pharmacological research, especially as regards diseases that require improvement of existing therapeutic regimens. Such diseases include preeclampsia, which is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy during which there occurs progressive increasing activation of the immune system through elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and antiangiogenic factors, which is dangerous for the mother and fetus. A promising field of research for new drugs to treat this disease is the study of natural phenolic compounds of plant origin and herbal extracts, which are complex matrices of chemical compounds with broad biological activities. Many plant substances with anti‑inflammatory and anti‑hypertensive properties are known, but studies in animal models of preeclampsia and clinical trials concerning this disease constitute a new and developing research trend of significant medical importance. The aim of our research review was to identify and analyze the results of already available studies on baicalin, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, punicalagin, quercetin, resveratrol, salvianolic acid A (danshensu), silibinin, and vitexin, as well as plant extracts from Brassica oleracea L., Euterpe oleracea Mart., Moringa oleifera Lam., Punica granatum L., Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner, Thymus schimperi Ronniger, Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil., and Vitis vinifera L., which are potential and promising candidates for further research and for potential new therapies.

MMP9 inhibition increases autophagic flux in chronic heart failure

Increased matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9) after myocardial infarction (MI) exacerbates ischemia-induced chronic heart failure (CHF). Autophagy is cardioprotective during CHF; however, whether increased MMP9 suppresses autophagic activity in CHF is unknown. This study aimed to determine whether increased MMP9 suppressed autophagic flux and MMP9 inhibition increased autophagic flux in the heart of rats with post-MI CHF. Sprague-Dawley rats underwent either sham surgery or coronary artery ligation 6-8 wk before being treated with MMP9 inhibitor for 7 days, followed by cardiac autophagic flux measurement with lysosomal inhibitor bafilomycin A1. Furthermore, autophagic flux was measured in vitro by treating H9c2 cardiomyocytes with two independent pharmacological MMP9 inhibitors, salvianolic acid B (SalB) and MMP9 inhibitor-I, and CRISPR/cas9-mediated MMP9 genetic ablation. CHF rats showed cardiac infarct, significantly increased left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), and increased MMP9 activity and fibrosis in the peri-infarct areas of left ventricular myocardium. Measurement of the autophagic markers LC3B-II and p62 with lysosomal inhibition showed decreased autophagic flux in the peri-infarct myocardium. Treatment with SalB for 7 days in CHF rats decreased MMP9 activity and cardiac fibrosis but increased autophagic flux in the peri-infarct myocardium. As an in vitro corollary study, measurement of autophagic flux in H9c2 cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts showed that pharmacological inhibition or genetic ablation of MMP9 upregulates autophagic flux. These data are consistent with our observations that MMP9 inhibition upregulates autophagic flux in the heart of rats with CHF. In conclusion, the results in this study suggest that the beneficial outcome of MMP9 inhibition in pathological cardiac remodeling is in part mediated by improved autophagic flux.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study elucidates that the improved cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and cardioprotective effect of matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9) inhibition in chronic heart failure (CHF) are via increased autophagic flux. Autophagy is cardioprotective; however, the mechanism of autophagy suppression in CHF is unknown. We for the first time demonstrated here that increased MMP9 suppressed cardiac autophagy and ablation of MMP9 increased cardiac autophagic flux in CHF rats. Restoring the physiological level of autophagy in the failing heart is a challenge, and our study addressed this challenge. The novelty and highlights of this report are as follows: 1) MMP9 regulates cardiomyocyte and fibroblast autophagy, 2) MMP9 inhibition protects CHF after myocardial infarction (MI) via increased cardiac autophagic flux, 3) MMP9 inhibition increased cardiac autophagy via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)α, Beclin-1, Atg7 pathway and suppressed mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway.

Possible applications of salvianolic acid B against different cancers

Cancer is the second death causing disease worldwide after cardiovascular abnormalities. The difficulty in treating tumor cells with more precise targeted interventions and recurrence of cancer after treatment may pose great difficulty in developing sustainable therapeutic regimens. These limitations have prompted the need to explore several compounds with ability to cease tumor growth while at the same time induce apoptosis of tumor cells. Several studies have emphasized the use of natural compounds as antitumor agents due to their high efficacy against cancer cells and low toxicity in normal cells. Salvianolic acid B (SAB), a naturally occurring phenolic compound extracted from the radix of Chinese herb Salvia miltiorrhiza can induce apoptosis in different types of tumor cells. It can be used to treat cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders, hepatic fibrosis, and cancers. Several studies have shown that SAB can mitigate tumorigenesis by modulating MAPK, PI3K/AKT, and NF-ĸB signaling pathways. It also sensitizes the tumor cells to different anti-cancer agents by reversing the multi-drug resistance mechanisms found in tumor cells. This review summarizes the studies showing antitumor potential of SAB in different types of cancer cell lines, animal models and highlights the possible mechanisms through which SAB can induce apoptosis, inhibit growth and metastasis in tumor cells. Moreover, the possible role of nano-technological approaches to induce targeted delivery of SAB to eradicate tumor cells has been also discussed.