The impact of changes to the graduated driver licensing program in Queensland, Australia on the experiences of Learner drivers

Effectiveness of road safety interventions: An evidence and gap map

Background

Road Traffic injuries (RTI) are among the top ten leading causes of death in the world resulting in 1.35 million deaths every year, about 93% of which occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Despite several global resolutions to reduce traffic injuries, they have continued to grow in many countries. Many high-income countries have successfully reduced RTI by using a public health approach and implementing evidence-based interventions. As many LMICs develop their highway infrastructure, adopting a similar scientific approach towards road safety is crucial. The evidence also needs to be evaluated to assess external validity because measures that have worked in high-income countries may not translate equally well to other contexts. An evidence gap map for RTI is the first step towards understanding what evidence is available, from where, and the key gaps in knowledge.

Objectives

The objective of this evidence gap map (EGM) is to identify existing evidence from all effectiveness studies and systematic reviews related to road safety interventions. In addition, the EGM identifies gaps in evidence where new primary studies and systematic reviews could add value. This will help direct future research and discussions based on systematic evidence towards the approaches and interventions which are most effective in the road safety sector. This could enable the generation of evidence for informing policy at global, regional or national levels.

Search Methods

The EGM includes systematic reviews and impact evaluations assessing the effect of interventions for RTI reported in academic databases, organization websites, and grey literature sources. The studies were searched up to December 2019.

Selection Criteria

The interventions were divided into five broad categories: (a) human factors (e.g., enforcement or road user education), (b) road design, infrastructure and traffic control, (c) legal and institutional framework, (d) post-crash pre-hospital care, and (e) vehicle factors (except car design for occupant protection) and protective devices. Included studies reported two primary outcomes: fatal crashes and non-fatal injury crashes; and four intermediate outcomes: change in use of seat belts, change in use of helmets, change in speed, and change in alcohol/drug use. Studies were excluded if they did not report injury or fatality as one of the outcomes.

Data Collection and Analysis

The EGM is presented in the form of a matrix with two primary dimensions: interventions (rows) and outcomes (columns). Additional dimensions are country income groups, region, quality level for systematic reviews, type of study design used (e.g., case-control), type of road user studied (e.g., pedestrian, cyclists), age groups, and road type. The EGM is available online where the matrix of interventions and outcomes can be filtered by one or more dimensions. The webpage includes a bibliography of the selected studies and titles and abstracts available for preview. Quality appraisal for systematic reviews was conducted using a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews, AMSTAR 2.

Main Results

The EGM identified 1859 studies of which 322 were systematic reviews, 7 were protocol studies and 1530 were impact evaluations. Some studies included more than one intervention, outcome, study method, or study region. The studies were distributed among intervention categories as: human factors (n = 771), road design, infrastructure and traffic control (n = 661), legal and institutional framework (n = 424), post-crash pre-hospital care (n = 118) and vehicle factors and protective devices (n = 111). Fatal crashes as outcomes were reported in 1414 records and non-fatal injury crashes in 1252 records. Among the four intermediate outcomes, speed was most commonly reported (n = 298) followed by alcohol (n = 206), use of seatbelts (n = 167), and use of helmets (n = 66). Ninety-six percent of the studies were reported from high-income countries (HIC), 4.5% from upper-middle-income countries, and only 1.4% from lower-middle and low-income countries. There were 25 systematic reviews of high quality, 4 of moderate quality, and 293 of low quality.

Authors' Conclusions

The EGM shows that the distribution of available road safety evidence is skewed across the world. A vast majority of the literature is from HICs. In contrast, only a small fraction of the literature reports on the many LMICs that are fast expanding their road infrastructure, experiencing rapid changes in traffic patterns, and witnessing growth in road injuries. This bias in literature explains why many interventions that are of high importance in the context of LMICs remain poorly studied. Besides, many interventions that have been tested only in HICs may not work equally effectively in LMICs. Another important finding was that a large majority of systematic reviews are of low quality. The scarcity of evidence on many important interventions and lack of good quality evidence-synthesis have significant implications for future road safety research and practice in LMICs. The EGM presented here will help identify priority areas for researchers, while directing practitioners and policy makers towards proven interventions.

Learning With a Supervisor Who has Traffic Offences and Young Driver Crashes: The DRIVE Study 13-Year Follow-Up

PURPOSE

Young learner drivers commonly must record substantial supervised practice driving before independent licensure. Supervisory driver requirements can be limited or highly regulated, yet research is lacking on the effectiveness of different approaches. The current objective was to explore whether young drivers who were mostly supervised by someone who they perceived had traffic offences versus no offences had different crash records over a period of 13 years postlicensing.

METHODS

DRIVE is an Australian prospective cohort study of more than 20,000 drivers who were aged 17-24 years and newly licensed during 2003-2004. They completed detailed baseline questionnaires, including whether the person they identified as supervising their learner driving the most had perceived traffic offences in the past 12 months. Responses were linked to their state crash, hospitalization, and death records to 2016. A parametric survival model was created to calculate hazard ratios of time to crash for those reporting that their supervisor had 0 versus 1 and 0 versus 2+ perceived offences, adjusting for the participants' prior crash history and other covariates.

RESULTS

After adjusting for covariates, 369 participants reporting supervisory drivers with 2+ perceived offences, compared to 15,451 participants reporting no such offences, had up to 1.67 (95% confidence interval 1.10-2.53 at 6 months) times the rate of any crash for the first 2.5 years and up to 2.01 (95% confidence interval 1.26-3.19 at 3.5 years) times the rate of crashes resulting in injury for 5.5 years.

DISCUSSION

Although overall supervision by a driver with two or more perceived offences was low, further attention is needed to ensure improved supervised driving experiences, with mentoring programs and professional instructor partnerships worthy of exploration.

Can a Smartphone Application Be Used to Measure Practice Driving Behavior During the Learner Permit Period? A Step Toward Performance-Based Licensing

Introduction

Supervised practice during the learner stage of graduated driver licensing is required in all U.S. states and some international jurisdictions. Several U.S. states require driving hours to be recorded in a paper logbook, making it susceptible to errors or falsification. A smartphone app that operates as an electronic logbook could serve as an alternative. The purpose of this study was to measure the impact of the logbook format (i.e., paper versus electronic) on self-reported driving behavior.

Design

Parent‒teen dyads were enrolled and assigned to electronic (n=147) and paper (n=131) logbook groups using a block design.

Setting/Participants

This study was conducted in Maryland. Data were collected for 6 continuous months while teenagers held a learner permit between January 2020 and December 2021.

Intervention

Electronic logbook to measure practice driving.

Outcome measure

Self-reported driving between the electronic and paper logbook groups. For those using electronic logbooks, an agreement between self-reported trips and electronic logbook trips and perceptions of using an electronic logbook to measure driving.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences in any measures of self-reported practice driving by logbook type (electronic versus paper). Agreement between self-reported and electronic logbook‒recorded trips ranged between 68.6% and 79.0% (allowing a difference of 2 trips per week). User satisfaction with the electronic logbook was high, with 93.0% of teenagers and 91.9% of parents stating that they would recommend the app to a friend.

Conclusions

An electronic logbook is a viable approach to measuring practice driving. Eventually, it could become part of a system where practice requirements are verified, allowing states to move toward performance-based graduated driver licensing.

At what stages of licensing do graduated driver licensing systems reduce crashes? Example from Queensland, Australia

Evaluations of new graduated licensing systems (GLS) commonly examine pre-post young driver crash rates relative to another driver group. This comparison approach is important to account for other influences on crashes over time, but has limited ability to determine which GLS components are most effective and at what stage during the licensing process. We previously identified declines in young driver crashes in Queensland, Australia, following introduction of a new GLS in 2007. The objective of the current research was to conduct complementary modelling to identify at what points through the licensing process had particular GLS policies contributed to reductions. Crash trends were explored for learner and provisional drivers under the new GLS versus previous system for three time periods relative to the month of acquiring a provisional licence: the preceding learner period, the first month of provisional licensure (when crashes typically peak), and the overall provisional period. Interrupted time series analyses were conducted for the log ratio of crashes per 10,000 licensed (learner and provisional) drivers with the total number of licensed drivers as an offset. The greatest declines were found in the first month of licensure, with indications that a longer learner period, higher supervised driving hours, and a new provisional night-passenger restriction were key contributors to provisional crash reductions. There was also some indication that a restriction on all phone use reduced crashes during the learner period. We conclude that time series analysis focusing on licensing stage, rather than calendar time only, offers a complementary approach to analysing GLS effectiveness by better identifying where and how changes impact crashes.

Higher-order driving instruction and opportunities for improvement: Exploring differences across learner driver experience

INTRODUCTION

Few studies have investigated what guidance occurs during the Learner phase of driving, particularly during formal lessons. The objective of this research was threefold: (a) investigate functional and higher-order driving instruction (HO-DI) in formal Learner lessons, (b) explore teaching approaches within the context of a theoretical framework, and (c) investigate variation in these three elements of instruction as a function of Learner driving experience. The theoretical framework developed to guide this research integrated the constructivist Goals for Driver Education and self-determination theory.

METHOD

Professional instruction was explored through naturalistic observation; 15 instructors provided GoPro recordings of 110 driving lessons with Learners aged 16-19 years (n = 96) at varying levels of experience: Early (<20 logbook hours), Mid (21-70 h), and Late (71->100 h).

RESULTS

Employing a previously-developed coding taxonomy, instructor guidance opportunities were identified as 15% HO-DI, 73% functional instruction, and 12% untaken or missed HO-DI. Functional instruction peaked in the Mid Phase, while HO-DI was prominent in the Early phase suggesting missed opportunities in the later phases when use of silence peaked. Some elements of self-determination theory's needs-supportive model were readily identified in teaching approaches, such as feedback.

CONCLUSIONS

An understanding of functional and HO-DI, including teaching strategies, was established within the context of an integrated theoretical framework, with different trajectories across Learner experience identified. Teaching strategies reflected constructivism and self-determination theory providing theoretical support for these frameworks to be applied in future driver training studies. Continued research efforts are needed to understand how best to balance functional and HO-DI to maximize young novice drivers' learning prior to independent driving, particularly during the late Learner period. Practical Applications: Naturalistic observation of current HO-DI and teaching approaches supports the feasibility of integrating recommended improvements arising from the theoretical framework within current practice, with practical implications for improvements to industry training.

What, Who, and When? The Perceptions That Young Drivers and Parents Have of Driving Simulators for Use in Driver Education

Driver education providers may utilise technologies such as driving simulators to augment their existing courses. Understanding the perceptions that young drivers and parents have of simulators may help to make simulator-based driver education more accepted and more likely to be effective. Young drivers and parents completed an online questionnaire that included a “simulator invention” visualisation task. Items based on the Goals for Driver Education framework investigated perceptions of the most appropriate skill type, while others examined the most suitable target group for simulator training, and timing in relation to completing a formal driver education course for simulator training to occur. Both groups perceived that simulators were most appropriate for training a combination of physical, traffic, psychological, and social driving skills with learner drivers during attendance at a novice driver education program. Young drivers and parents had similar perceptions regarding the amount that each skill type should be trained using a simulator. Understanding the perceptions of young drivers and parents, and especially those who are somewhat naïve to the use of driving simulators, may aid in the introduction and administration of simulator training and may increase the effectiveness of driver education as a crash countermeasure.

Learner Driver Experience and Teenagers' Crash Risk During the First Year of Independent Driving

IMPORTANCE

One mechanism for teenagers' elevated crash risk during independent driving may be inadequate learner driving experience.

OBJECTIVE

To determine how learner driver experience was associated with crash risk during the first year of independent driving.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Youth aged 15.5 to 16.1 years at recruitment were eligible to participate. Participants' vehicles were instrumented with sensors, and driving was recorded during the learner period through 1 year of independent driving. Data were collected from January 2011 through August 2014 in southwestern Virginia.

EXPOSURES

The amount, consistency and variety of practice, driving errors, and kinematic risky driving (KRD) rates during the learner period were recorded. Surveys, including one on sensation-seeking personality traits, were assessed at baseline.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Cox proportional hazard regressions examined associations between individual characteristics and learner driving experience with driving time to first crash and all crashes in the first year of independent driving. So that hazard ratios (HRs) can be directly comparable, units of measurement were standardized to the interquartile range.

RESULTS

Of 298 individuals who responded to recruitment, 90 fulfilled the criteria and 82 completed the study (of whom 75 were white [91%] and 44 were girls [54%]). Teenage participants drove a mean (SD) of 1259.2 (939.7) miles over 89 days during the learner period. There were 49 property-damage crashes and/or police-reportable crashes during independent driving. Factors associated with driving time to first crash included higher sensation-seeking personality scale scores (HR, 1.67 [95% CI, 1.08-2.57] per 0.75-unit increase), learner driving KRD rates (HR, 1.27 [95% CI, 1.12-1.43] per 9.24-unit increase), and learner driving errors (HR, 0.44 [95% CI, 0.22-0.86] per increase of 6.48 errors). Similar results were obtained for all crashes in the first year, with the addition of consistency of learner driving practice (HR, 0.61 [95% CI, 0.38-0.99] per 0.23-unit increase).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Individual characteristics and learner driving experiences were associated with crash risk during independent driving. As expected, there was an association between sensation seeking and crashes. Elevated KRD rates during the learner period may reflect risky driving behavior among novices or tolerance to abrupt maneuvers by parents who supervise driving. Consistent practice throughout the learner period could reduce teenage crash risk, which is supported by learning theories indicating distributed practice is effective for developing expertise. Errors during practice may constitute learning events that reinforce safer driving. Physicians could encourage parents to provide opportunities for regular practice driving and monitor their teenager's KRD rates during the learner period using in-vehicle or smartphone-based technology.

Impacts of graduated driver licensing regulations

We evaluate the impact of the Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) system introduced in Victoria, Australia as they influence both injury and fatality rates. Since 1990, the Victorian GDL scheme has undergone several modifications including the introduction of new requirements and the stricter enforcement of existing regulations. Our evaluation of the GDL is based on monthly mortality and morbidity data for drivers 18-25 for the period January 2000 to June 2017. We estimate the immediate and long-term impacts of each policy change to the GDL system. Our results indicate that several initiatives in the GDL system have had impacts on both fatalities and injuries requiring hospitalisation when differentiated by gender. In a number of cases we observe that reactions to these measures are common to both genders. These include: the signalling of the proposed GDL changes in the media, the introduction of an extra probationary year for those under 21, the total alcohol ban for the entire probationary period, and limits on peer passengers for the first year. Stricter mobile phone restrictions appear to have had no impact on injuries for either males or females although they were associated with lower fatality rates for both. In addition, we found an indication that in the period prior to the introduction of the mandatory requirement of 120 h supervised driving, there was a rise in male driver injuries possibly caused by a rush of more inexperienced learners to obtain their probationary licence.

Novice drivers’ experiences of parental encouragement with road rules in Queensland: Scope for a third party policing approach?

This study explored whether a third party policing approach is appropriate for increasing young driver compliance with graduated driver licensing restrictions. Focus groups (n = 3) and semi-structured interviews (n = 24) were conducted with young drivers from Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Participants (n = 39 in total) were aged 17 to 19 years and held a Provisional 1 or 2 licence. Many young drivers appreciated the involvement of their parents in their novice driving period and reported that parents provided practical support and planning strategies. There is potential for the use of a third party policing intervention to improve compliance amongst young drivers.

Association between higher-order driving instruction and risky driving behaviours: Exploring the mediating effects of a self-regulated safety orientation

Adolescents' risky driving behaviours contribute to their over-representation in road trauma. Higher-order driving instruction is suggested to reduce such behaviours. To sustain positive behaviours in the long-term, self-determination theory identifies self-regulation as fundamental. The current research explored associations between higher-order driving instruction, risky driving behaviours, and a self-regulated safety orientation. Learner drivers (n = 544), aged 16-19 years, responded to a 91-item survey. Self-regulated safety orientation was found to fully mediate the relationship between higher-order driving instruction and inattentive risky driving behaviours, and between anticipatory higher-order driving instruction and intentional risky driving behaviours. A partial mediation was found between self-regulatory higher-order instruction and intentional risky driving behaviours. These results support that higher-order driving instruction, delivered to develop a self-regulated safety orientation, has potential to reduce young novice drivers' risky driving behaviours. Further research is recommended to triangulate these results through direct observation and longitudinal evaluation.

Associations between graduated driver licensing and road trauma reductions in a later licensing age jurisdiction: Queensland, Australia

The success of driver graduated licensing systems (GLS) is demonstrated primarily in jurisdictions that licence at young ages with requirements expiring at age 18. In Australia, GLS requirements typically apply for all applicants aged under 25. In 2007, the Queensland licensing system was strengthened, extending the learner and introducing a 100-hour supervised driving requirement, introducing restrictions on passenger carriage at night and high-powered vehicles for provisional drivers, and on phone use for all novice drivers (learner and provisional). The objective of the current research was to evaluate whether these changes were associated with reductions in crashes (all) and killed-and-serious-injury (KSI) crashes involving novice drivers, and respective casualties. Government licensing and police crash records were linked and interrupted time series analysis was used to examine potential shifts in crash trends by rates of licensed drivers per month. Substantial declines were found in novice driver crashes (13.1% per year; 95%CI -0.0130, -0.0096), crash casualties (13.9% per year; 95%CI -0.0137, -0.0101), KSI crashes (5.4% per year; 95%CI -0.0080, -0.0046) and associated casualties (5.2% per year; 95%CI -0.0075, -0.0039). Compared to the total licensed driver population, declines in crashes (3.0% per year; 95%CI -0.0027, -0.0007) and crash casualties (2.9% per year; 95%CI -0.0029, -0.0006) but not KSI outcomes were observed. More narrowly, declines were found for provisional-licensed driver crashes (9.3% per year; 95%CI -0.0096, -0.0063) and KSI crashes (3.6% per year; 95%CI -0.0004, -0.0128) that were approximately 2.6% and 1.2% greater than respective declines for 25-29-year-old open-licensed drivers. Substantial declines also were observed in novice driver single-vehicle, night, passenger and alcohol crashes. Overall, these results demonstrate that GLS can be effective in a later age licensing jurisdiction. However, KSI outcomes were limited. Modelling research is recommended on ways to further strengthen Queensland’s GLS to achieve greater trauma reductions.

Driver prototypes and behavioral willingness: Young driver risk perception and reported engagement in risky driving

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to explore perceived risk and reported willingness to engage in risky driving in a sample of young Australian drivers. The study also considered the influence of gender, driving experience, and risky driver prototypes on willingness to engage in risky driving. Within this context, a prototype is a social image of the type of person who engages in specific risk behaviors. In the prototype willingness model (PWM), willingness accounts for motivations that do not directly rely on planning or goal formation.

METHODS

The PWM was applied to a sample of 554 drivers (aged 17-25 years) to explore how risky driver prototypes: similarity (extent of identification with the prototype), favorability (how positive is the image), and behavioral willingness, may influence their perceived risk and reported engagement in risky driving behaviors. Drivers holding an Australian driver's license (Provisional 1, Provisional 2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey measuring: 1) driver prototypes and behavioral willingness to engage in risky driving behaviors, 2) perceived risk of driving-related behaviors, and 3) the Behavior of Young Novice Drivers Scale transient and fixed violations subscales.

RESULTS

Path analysis explored relationships between prototypes and willingness variables, perceived risk, and reported driving engagement. Goodness-of-fit statistics supported the conceptual model. Behavioral willingness showed the strongest relationship with perceived risk (negative) and reported driving violation engagement (positive).

CONCLUSIONS

Risky driver prototypes and behavioral willingness, as well as driver's sex and driving experience, may help to explain individual differences in perceived risk, and young driver reported risky driving engagement.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Identifying relevant factors that could be amenable to change, such as driver prototype and willingness variables, may contribute to improved road safety initiatives, and provide information and support to counter factors that might otherwise facilitate young drivers' risk perceptions and risky driving engagement.

Factors Influencing Learner Permit Duration

An increasing number of countries are requiring an extended learner permit prior to independent driving. The question of when drivers begin the learner permit period, and how long they hold the permit before advancing to independent licensure has received little research attention. Licensure timing is likely to be related to "push" and "pull" factors which may encourage or inhibit the process. To examine this question, we recruited a sample of 90 novice drivers (49 females and 41 males, average age of 15.6 years) soon after they obtained a learner permit and instrumented their vehicles to collect a range of driving data. Participants completed a series of surveys at recruitment related to factors that may influence licensure timing. Two distinct findings emerged from the time-to-event analysis that tested these push and pull factors in relation to licensure timing. The first can be conceptualized as teens' motivation to drive (push), reflected in a younger age when obtaining a learner permit and extensive pre-permit driving experience. The second finding was teens' perceptions of their parents' knowledge of their activities (pull); a proxy for a parents' attentiveness to their teens' lives. Teens who reported higher levels of their parents' knowledge of their activities took longer to advance to independent driving. These findings suggest time-to-licensure may be related to teens' internal motivation to drive, and the ability of parents to facilitate or impede early licensure.

Naturalistic assessment of the learner license period

The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics and progression of practice driving during the learner license period in a sample of teenagers. During the first and last 10h of practice driving, we examined (1) the amount, variety and complexity of conditions of practice; (2) the nature of parental instruction; and (3) errors that teens made while driving. Data were collected from 90 teens and 131 parents living in Virginia, USA, using in-vehicle cameras, audio recorders, GPS and trip recorders. Based on data collected from the instrumented vehicles, teens practiced for 46.6h on average, slightly higher than the GDL requirement for their jurisdiction, though half did not complete the required 45h of practice and only 17% completed the required 15h of night time driving. Exposure to diverse roadways increased over the practice driving period, which averaged 10.6 months. Most driving instruction occurred in reaction to specific driving situations, such as navigating and identifying hazards, and could be characterized as co-driving. Higher order instruction, which relates to the tactics or strategies for safe driving, was less frequent, but remained stable through the practice driving period. Instruction of all forms was more likely following an elevated gravitational force (g-force) event. Errors decreased over time, suggesting improvements in manual and judgment skills, but engagement in potentially distracting secondary tasks increased (when an adult was in the vehicle). A small percentage of trips occurred with no passenger in the front seat, and the g-force rate during these trips was almost 5 times higher than trips with an adult front-seat passenger. Taken collectively, these findings indicate (1) most teens got at least the required amount of supervised practice, but some did not; (2) instruction was mainly reactive and included some higher order instruction; (3) teens driving skills improved despite increased exposure to complex driving conditions, but secondary tasks also increased. Opportunities remained for improving the quality and variability in supervision and enhancing the development of skills during the lengthy period of practice.

Pathways linking car transport for young adults and the public health in Northern Ireland: a qualitative study to inform the evaluation of graduated driver licensing

Background

Novice drivers are at relatively high risk of road traffic injury. There is good evidence that Graduated Driving Licensing (GDL) schemes reduce collisions rates, by reducing exposure to risk and by extending learning periods. Legislation for a proposed scheme in Northern Ireland was passed in 2016, providing an opportunity for future evaluation of the full public health impacts of a scheme in a European context within a natural experiment. This qualitative study was designed to inform the logic model for such an evaluation, and provide baseline qualitative data on the role of private cars in health and wellbeing.

Methods

Nine group interviews with young people aged 16–23 (N = 43) and two group interviews with parents of young people (N = 8) were conducted in a range of settings in Northern Ireland in 2015. Data were analysed using thematic content analysis.

Results

Informal car-pooling within and beyond households led to routine expectations of lift provision and uptake. Experiences of risky driving situations were widespread. In rural areas, extensive use of farm vehicles for transport needs meant many learner drivers had both early driving experience and expectations that legislation may have to be locally adapted to meet social needs. Cars were used as a site for socialising, as well as essential means of transport. Alternative modes (public transport, walking and cycling) were held in low esteem, even where available. Recall of other transport-related public health messages and parents’ existing use of GDL-type restrictions suggested GDL schemes were acceptable in principle. There was growing awareness and use of in-car technologies (telematics) used by insurance companies to reward good driving.

Conclusions

Key issues to consider in evaluating the broader public health impact of GDL will include: changes in injury rates for licensed car occupants and other populations and modes; changes in exposure to risk in the licensed and general population; and impact on transport exclusion. We suggest an important pathway will be change in social norms around offering and accepting lifts and to risk-taking. The growing adoption of in-car telematics will have implications for future GDL programmes and for evaluation.

Obstacles to engaging in young driver licensing: Perspectives of parents

INTRODUCTION

Young novice drivers remain at greater risk of injury and death despite a wealth of interventions including graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs. The key to implementing safer practices inherent in GDL appears to lie with optimising the role of parents. This qualitative research explored the parent's perspectives of obstacles to engaging in the driver licensing process within a GDL program. Parents also shared advice on what they found helpful, and where relevant, recommended changes in the process to enable safer practices for young drivers.

METHOD

Twenty-three parents (aged 35-60 years, M=49.52, SD=8.01, 11 males) participated in semi-structured interviews regarding licensing experiences with their young driver children. The young drivers included learner (n=11), provisional (restricted/intermediate) (n=9) and open (unrestricted/full) licence drivers (n=3), ranging from 16 to 24 years (M=18.04, SD=2.21, 13 males).

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Content analysis revealed that most obstacles were encountered at the learner licensing phase, with the parent-reported difficult temperament of the learner driver the most prominent. Unsurprisingly, advice to other parents to be patient and remain calm featured heavily during the same phase. Anxiety from not having control of the vehicle was another obstacle at the learner phase, translating to anxieties for child safety in the early stages of provisional driving. Recommendations for the current GDL included more rigorous road rule testing, with general support for the program, professional driver training at learner and provisional stages facilitated parental engagement through the licensing phases.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The findings overwhelmingly suggest a need for parents to be educated regarding their importance in, and of, the driver licensing process, and the efficacy of their instruction, content and practices.

Challenges to driver licensing participation for Aboriginal people in Australia: a systematic review of the literature

Introduction

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are overrepresented in transport-related morbidity and mortality. Low rates of licensure in Aboriginal communities and households have been identified as a contributor to high rates of unlicensed driving. There is increasing recognition that Aboriginal people experience challenges and adversity in attaining a licence. This systematic review aims to identify the barriers to licence participation among Aboriginal people in Australia.

Method

A systematic search of electronic databases and purposive sampling of grey literature was conducted, two authors independently assessed publications for eligibility for inclusion.

Results

Twelve publications were included in this review, of which there were 11 reporting primary research (qualitative and mixed methods) and a practitioner report. Barriers identified were categorised as individual and family barriers or systemic barriers relating to the justice system, graduated driver licensing (GDL) and service provision. A model is presented that depicts the barriers within a cycle of licensing adversity.

Discussion

There is an endemic lack of licensing access for Aboriginal people that relates to financial hardship, unmet cultural needs and an inequitable system. This review recommends targeting change at the systemic level, including a review of proof of identification and fines enforcement policy, diversionary programs and increased provision for people experiencing financial hardship.

Conclusion

This review positions licensing within the context of barriers to social inclusion that Aboriginal people frequently encounter. Equitable access to licensing urgently requires policy reform and service provision that is inclusive, responsive to the cultural needs of Aboriginal people and accessible to regional and remote communities.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12939-016-0422-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The influence of the elements of procedural justice and speed camera enforcement on young novice driver self-reported speeding

Road policing is an important tool used to modify road user behaviour. While other theories, such as deterrence theory, are significant in road policing, there may be a role for using procedural justice as a framework to improve outcomes in common police citizen interactions such as traffic law enforcement. This study, using a sample of 237 young novice drivers, considered how the four elements of procedural justice (voice, neutrality, respect and trustworthiness) were perceived in relation to two forms of speed enforcement: point-to-point (or average) speed and mobile speed cameras. Only neutrality was related to both speed camera types suggesting that it may be possible to influence behaviour by emphasising one or more elements, rather than using all components of procedural justice. This study is important as it indicates that including at least some elements of procedural justice in more automated policing encounters can encourage citizen compliance.

The association of graduated driver licensing with miles driven and fatal crash rates per miles driven among adolescents

BACKGROUND

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws are associated with reduced crash rates per person-year among adolescents. It is unknown whether adolescents crash less per miles driven or drive less under GDL policies.

METHODS

We used data from the US National Household Travel Survey and Fatality Analysis Reporting System for 1995-1996, 2001-2002 and 2008-2009. We compared adolescents subject to GDL laws with those not by estimating adjusted IRRs for being a driver in a crash with a death per person-year (aIRRpy) and per miles driven (aIRRm), and adjusted miles driven ratios (aMR) controlling for changes in rates over time.

RESULTS

Comparing persons subject to GDL policies with those not, 16 year olds had fewer fatal crashes per person-year (aIRRpy 0.63, 95% CI 0.47 to 0.91), drove fewer miles (aMR 0.79, 95% CI 0.63 to 0.98) and had lower crash rates per miles driven (aIRRm 0.83, 95% CI 0.65 to 1.06). For age 17, the aIRRpy was 0.83 (95% CI 0.60 to 1.17), the aMR 0.80 (95% CI 0.63 to 1.03) and the aIRRm 1.03 (95% CI 0.80 to 1.35). For age 18, the aIRRpy was 0.93 (95% CI 0.72 to 1.19), the aMR 0.92 (95% CI 0.77 to 1.09) and the aIRRm 1.01 (95% CI 0.84 to 1.23).

CONCLUSIONS

If these associations are causal, GDL laws reduced crashes per person-year by about one-third among 16 year olds; half the reduction was due to fewer crashes per miles driven and half to less driving. For ages 17 and 18, there was no evidence of reduced crash rates per miles driven.

The driver, the road, the rules … and the rest? A systems-based approach to young driver road safety

The persistent overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes is universally recognised. A multitude of factors influencing their behaviour and safety have been identified through methods including crash analyses, simulated and naturalistic driving studies, and self-report measures. Across the globe numerous, diverse, countermeasures have been implemented; the design of the vast majority of these has been informed by a driver-centric approach. An alternative approach gaining popularity in transport safety is the systems approach which considers not only the characteristics of the individual, but also the decisions and actions of other actors within the road transport system, along with the interactions amongst them. This paper argues that for substantial improvements to be made in young driver road safety, what has been learnt from driver-centric research needs to be integrated into a systems approach, thus providing a holistic appraisal of the young driver road safety problem. Only then will more effective opportunities and avenues for intervention be realised.

Non-compliance with graduated driver licensing (GDL) requirements: changes in GDL-related conviction rates over time among 16-17-year-old California drivers

INTRODUCTION

Self-reports by novice teen drivers in California and elsewhere suggest that many violate graduated driver licensing (GDL) nighttime and passenger restrictions, and to a lesser extent, drive on learner permits without being supervised. Is this corroborated by their traffic conviction records?

METHOD

We examined historical aggregated conviction rates for GDL-related violations before and after GDL, and Poisson regressions of conviction rates over time among 16-17-year-old California novices.

RESULTS

During the year before they received their provisional licenses, <1% of 16-year-old novices and <2% of 17-year-old novices were convicted of driving unlicensed or unsupervised on their learner permits. Statewide historical conviction rates for these offenses were not higher after GDL was implemented, despite the longer holding period. Convictions for violating GDL nighttime or passenger restrictions were highest almost immediately after provisional licensure, though only about 3% of 16-year-old novices and 2% of 17-year-old novices were ever convicted of violating either restriction.

DISCUSSION

California 16-17-year-old novice drivers were very rarely convicted of GDL-related violations. The contradictive, large differences between the current findings and self-report surveys are likely due in part to the fact that most self-reports assessed only whether teens had ever violated a GDL-related requirement, which exaggerates prevalence. Our conviction findings are more similar to estimates of non-compliance with GDL-related requirements from naturalistic driving studies that monitor actual driving behavior and take exposure into account, but are lower likely due to issues related to detection, enforcement, and adjudication of violations, as well as limitations of existing naturalistic studies.

Graduated Driver Licensing: An international review

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) aims to gradually increase the exposure of new drivers to more complex driving situations and typically consists of learner, provisional and open licence phases. The first phase, the learner licence, is designed to allow novice drivers to obtain practical driving experience in lower risk situations. The learner licence can delay licensure, encourage novice drivers to learn under supervision, mandate the number of hours of practice required to progress to the next phase and encourage parental involvement. The second phase, the provisional licence, establishes various driving restrictions and thereby reduces exposure to situations of higher risk, such as driving at night, with passengers or after drinking alcohol. Parental involvement with a GDL system appears essential in helping novices obtain sufficient practice and in enforcing compliance with restrictions once the new driver obtains a provisional licence. Given the significant number of young drivers involved in crashes within Oman, GDL is one countermeasure that may be beneficial in reducing crash risk and involvement for this group.

Experiences of teen drivers and their advice for the learner license phase

OBJECTIVE

Teen drivers remain at considerable risk of injury and fatality during the earliest years of independent driving. Multistage licensing programs, such as graduated driver licensing (GDL), have been implemented in numerous jurisdictions as a form of exposure control, mandating minimum practice periods and driving restrictions such as night driving and passenger limits. However, the teen driver's experiences of GDL during the learner phase, and the driving and other advice they recommend be shared with all learners, remains unknown at this time.

METHODS

Thirty-seven learner drivers (aged 16-18 years, mean = 16.7, mode = 16; 9 males) from 2 high schools (one private, 3 males; one public) participated in one of 2 (group 1: private school, n = 17) 45-min group discussions.

RESULTS

Two themes emerged: (1) learning to drive and (2) supervision of the learner driver. A wealth of experiences and advice pertaining to the subthemes of supervisor behavior, GDL, road environment, vehicle logistics, and interacting with other road users were shared by learners. Numerous recommendations are made pertaining to each subtheme, such as clear instruction and feedback, tips for negotiating complex infrastructure, and normalizing of outcomes like stalled vehicles when first learning to drive. Furthermore, it appears that current approaches of issuing supporting literature at the commencement of the learner phase are insufficient.

CONCLUSIONS

The wealth of experiences and advice shared by the learner drivers should be considered in refining the content and process of the learner license phase. Moreover, the nonuse of learner resources suggests that alternative mechanisms of engagement and information dissemination need to be explored.

The role of parents and non-parents in the supervision of learner drivers in Australia

The purpose of this study was to contrast the role of parental and non-parental (sibling, other family and non-family) supervisors in the supervision of learner drivers in graduated driver licensing systems. The sample consisted of 522 supervisors from the Australian states of Queensland (n=204, 39%) and New South Wales (n=318, 61%). The learner licence requirements in these two states are similar, although learners in Queensland are required to accrue 100h of supervision in a log book while those in New South Wales are required to accrue 120h. Approximately 50 per cent of the sample (n=255) were parents of the learner driver while the remainder of the sample were either siblings (n=72, 13.8%), other family members (n=153, 29.3%) or non-family (n=114, 21.8%). Parents were more likely than siblings, other family or non-family members to be the primary supervisor of the learner driver. Siblings provided fewer hours of practice when compared with other supervisor types while the median and mode suggest that parents provided the most hours of practice to learner drivers. This study demonstrates that non-parental supervisors, such as siblings, other family members and non-family, at least in jurisdictions that require 100 or 120h of practice, are important in facilitating learner drivers to accumulate sufficient supervised driving practice.

Parent comments and instruction during the first four months of supervised driving: an opportunity missed?

The present study examined the nature of the comments and instruction provided by parents during supervised driving. Unlike previous studies which rely on self-report, the data in this study were obtained through direct observation of parents and teens using in-vehicle cameras with audio recording. The cameras were installed in the vehicles of 50 families for the first four months of the learner license stage. The findings show a great deal of conversation takes place while teens are driving with a supervisor, and that much of this conversation concerns driving. Sixty-one percent (61%) of all recorded clips included driving-related conversation. The most common type of comment by parents was instruction about vehicle handling or operation, observed in 53% of those clips with conversation about driving. This was followed by pointing out something about the driving environment (such as when it was clear to enter traffic; 23%), negative comments about the teen's driving (22%), and helping the driver navigate (18%). Other potentially helpful types of instruction, including explanation or insights regarding higher order skills (e.g., hazard anticipation and detection), were noticeably less frequent. Moreover, higher order instruction remained low during the first four months of the learner stage, even as instruction about vehicle handling/operation decreased. These findings suggest parents are not taking full advantage of the opportunity provided by mandatory periods of supervised driving to help their children develop an understanding of important aspects of driving.

Parental perceptions of the learner driver log book system in two Australian states

OBJECTIVE

Though many jurisdictions internationally now require learner drivers to complete a specified number of hours of supervised driving practice before being able to drive unaccompanied, very few require learner drivers to complete a log book to record this practice and then present it to the licensing authority. Learner drivers in most Australian jurisdictions must complete a log book that records their practice, thereby confirming to the licensing authority that they have met the mandated hours of practice requirement. These log books facilitate the management and enforcement of minimum supervised hours of driving requirements.

METHOD

Parents of learner drivers in 2 Australian states, Queensland and New South Wales, completed an online survey assessing a range of factors, including their perceptions of the accuracy of their child's learner log book and the effectiveness of the log book system.

RESULTS

The study indicates that the large majority of parents believe that their child's learner log book is accurate. However, they generally report that the log book system is only moderately effective as a system to measure the number of hours of supervised practice a learner driver has completed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest the presence of a paradox, with many parents possibly believing that others are not as diligent in the use of log books as they are or that the system is too open to misuse. Given that many parents report that their child's log book is accurate, this study has important implications for the development and ongoing monitoring of hours of practice requirements in graduated driver licensing systems.

Revisiting the concept of the 'problem young driver' within the context of the 'young driver problem': who are they?

For decades there have been two young driver concepts: the 'young driver problem' where the driver cohort represents a key problem for road safety; and the 'problem young driver' where a sub-sample of drivers represents the greatest road safety problem. Given difficulties associated with identifying and then modifying the behaviour of the latter group, broad countermeasures such as graduated driver licensing (GDL) have generally been relied upon to address the young driver problem. GDL evaluations reveal general road safety benefits for young drivers, yet they continue to be overrepresented in fatality and injury statistics. Therefore it is timely for researchers to revisit the 'problem young driver' concept to assess its potential countermeasure implications. This is particularly relevant within the context of broader countermeasures that have been designed to address the 'young driver problem' Personal characteristics, behaviours and attitudes of 378 Queensland novice drivers aged 17-25 years were explored during their pre-, Learner and Provisional 1 (intermediate) licence as part of a larger longitudinal project. Self-reported risky driving was measured by the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS), and five subscale scores were used to cluster the drivers into three groups (high risk n=49, medium risk n=163, low risk n=166). High risk 'problem young drivers' were characterised by greater self-reported pre-Licence driving, unsupervised Learner driving, and speeding, driving errors, risky driving exposure, crash involvement, and offence detection during the Provisional period. Medium risk drivers were also characterised by more risky road use than the low risk group. Interestingly problem young drivers appear to have some insight into their high-risk driving, since they report significantly greater intentions to bend road rules in future driving. The results suggest that tailored intervention efforts may need to target problem young drivers within the context of broad countermeasures such as GDL which address the young driver problem in general. Experiences such as crash-involvement could be used to identify these drivers as a preintervention screening measure.

Learner driver experiences and crash risk as an unsupervised driver

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to describe the driving experiences of learner licensed drivers and examine the association between these driving experiences, associated factors, and on-road car crash involvement during the unsupervised restricted license stage.

METHODS

Data were drawn from a cohort investigation of newly licensed drivers. Information on demographic characteristics, personality, and risk behaviors was collected at the baseline interview. At the first follow-up interview (restricted license stage) study members were asked details about their experiences as a learner licensed driver: professional driving lessons, supervised driving, unsupervised driving, and driving courses in which they participated. During the second follow-up interview (full license stage), data were collected on crash involvement and driving exposure during the restricted license stage. Regression analysis was used to determine independent relationships between learner license driving experience variables and crash involvement.

RESULTS

After adjusting for demographic, personality factors, and driving exposure at the restricted license stage, increased time spent on the learner license was associated with a reduced risk of crash involvement during the unsupervised restricted license stage.

CONCLUSION

Results presented in this paper suggest that learner drivers in New Zealand should be encouraged to spend more time on their learner license to enable them to gain skills and experience to help reduce their crash risk when they are allowed to drive unsupervised.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

Compared with novice drivers who are on their learner license for the least amount of time, those who spend the most amount of time on their learner license have reduced risk of on-road crash involvement as an unsupervised driver. Learner drivers and their supervisors need to be aware of the length of time required for practice in order to reduce the risks of crash involvement when they are able to drive unsupervised (O'Brien et al., 2012). The recently introduced increase in the minimum driver licensing age in NZ, tougher restricted license stage driving test (aimed at encouraging 120 hours of supervised driving), and the Safe Teen driver campaign (NZ Transport Agency, 2012) are all strategies targeted at improving the safety of learner drivers. These strategies need to be evaluated to ensure they are achieving their goals.

Licensing age issues: deliberations from a workshop devoted to this topic

OBJECTIVE

To highlight the issues and discuss the research evidence regarding safety, mobility, and other consequences of different licensing ages.

METHODS

Information included is based on presentations and discussions at a 1-day workshop on licensing age issues and a review and synthesis of the international literature.

RESULTS

The literature indicates that higher licensing ages are associated with safety benefits. There is an associated mobility loss, more likely to be an issue in rural states. Legislative attempts to raise the minimum age for independent driving in the United States--for example, from 16 to 17--have been resisted, although in some states the age has been raised indirectly through graduated driver licensing (GDL) policies.

CONCLUSIONS

Jurisdictions can achieve reductions in teenage crashes by raising the licensing age. This can be done directly or indirectly by strengthening GDL systems, in particular extending the minimum length of the learner period. Supplementary materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of Traffic Injury Prevention for the following supplemental resource: List of workshop participants.

Speeding by young novice drivers: What can personal characteristics and psychosocial theory add to our understanding?

PURPOSE

Young novice drivers continue to be overrepresented in fatalities and injuries arising from crashes even with the introduction of countermeasures such as graduated driver licensing (GDL). Enhancing countermeasures requires a better understanding of the variables influencing risky driving. One of the most common risky behaviours performed by drivers of all ages is speeding, which is particularly risky for young novice drivers who, due to their driving inexperience, have difficulty in identifying and responding appropriately to road hazards. Psychosocial theory can improve our understanding of contributors to speeding, thereby informing countermeasure development and evaluation. This paper reports an application of Akers' social learning theory (SLT), augmented by Gerrard and Gibbons' prototype/willingness model (PWM), in addition to personal characteristics of age, gender, car ownership, and psychological traits/states of anxiety, depression, sensation seeking propensity and reward sensitivity, to examine the influences on self-reported speeding of young novice drivers with a Provisional (intermediate) licence in Queensland, Australia.

METHOD

Young drivers (n=378) recruited in 2010 for longitudinal research completed two surveys containing the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, and reported their attitudes and behaviours as pre-Licence/Learner (Survey 1) and Provisional (Survey 2) drivers and their sociodemographic characteristics.

RESULTS

An Akers' measurement model was created. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that (1) personal characteristics (PC) explained 20.3%; (2) the combination of PC and SLT explained 41.1%; (3) the combination of PC, SLT and PWM explained 53.7% of variance in self-reported speeding. Whilst there appeared to be considerable shared variance, the significant predictors in the final model included gender, car ownership, reward sensitivity, depression, personal attitudes, and Learner speeding.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the capacity for psychosocial theory to improve our understanding of speeding by young novice drivers, revealing relationships between previous behaviour, attitudes, psychosocial characteristics and speeding. The findings suggest multi-faceted countermeasures should target the risky behaviour of Learners, and Learner supervisors should be encouraged to monitor their Learners' driving speed. Novice drivers should be discouraged from developing risky attitudes towards speeding.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS)

PURPOSE

The greatly increased risk of being killed or injured in a car crash for the young novice driver has been recognised in the road safety and injury prevention literature for decades. Risky driving behaviour has consistently been found to contribute to traffic crashes. Researchers have devised a number of instruments to measure this risky driving behaviour. One tool developed specifically to measure the risky behaviour of young novice drivers is the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS) (Scott-Parker et al., 2010). The BYNDS consists of 44 items comprising five subscales for transient violations, fixed violations, misjudgement, risky driving exposure, and driving in response to their mood. The factor structure of the BYNDS has not been examined since its development in a matched sample of 476 novice drivers aged 17-25 years.

METHOD

The current research attempted to refine the BYNDS and explore its relationship with the self-reported crash and offence involvement and driving intentions of 390 drivers aged 17-25 years (M=18.23, SD=1.58) in Queensland, Australia, during their first 6 months of independent driving with a Provisional (intermediate) driver's licence. A confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken examining the fit of the originally proposed BYNDS measurement model.

RESULTS

The model was not a good fit to the data. A number of iterations removed items with low factor loadings, resulting in a 36-item revised BYNDS which was a good fit to the data. The revised BYNDS was highly internally consistent. Crashes were associated with fixed violations, risky driving exposure, and misjudgement; offences were moderately associated with risky driving exposure and transient violations; and road-rule compliance intentions were highly associated with transient violations.

CONCLUSIONS

Applications of the BYNDS in other young novice driver populations will further explore the factor structure of both the original and revised BYNDS. The relationships between BYNDS subscales and self-reported risky behaviour and attitudes can also inform countermeasure development, such as targeting young novice driver non-compliance through enforcement and education initiatives.

Understanding trauma as a men's health issue: sex differences in traumatic injury presentations at a level 1 trauma center in Australia

Predominantly, males have a higher risk of injury mortality and morbidity than females. However, less is known about gender differences for injury and trauma outcome at a regional level. The aim of this study was to examine the epidemiologic profile and trauma outcomes of males and females at a level 1 trauma center to inform local injury prevention efforts. A retrospective review was conducted of injuries identified from the trauma registry of the New South Wales St George Public Hospital during January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2008. There were 6763 major trauma presentations, and 65.1% of these were of males. Males had a higher proportion of trauma presentations in each age group, except for those younger than 15 years, 45 to 54 years, and older than 65 years. Almost all presentations were as a result of unintentional injuries. However, 8% of males were victims of assault compared with 2% of females. Males were more likely to be injured while working and during leisure or sports activities and at sporting, farming, home, trade, and industrial locations than females. Males were more likely to be more severely injured than females and generally had a longer hospital length of stay. There was no significant difference in the rate of mortality between the genders. There are distinct differences between the sexes regarding the mechanism and severity of injury and trauma outcomes. Local injury prevention initiatives should be targeted to address gender differences. Future social research should examine the interplay of the construction of masculinities with male injury.

Graduated driver licensing research, 2010-present

This is the latest in a series of reviews of research on graduated driver licensing (GDL) published in the Journal of Safety Research, covering the period January 1, 2010-June 1, 2012 and works in progress. The intent is to keep researchers and policy makers current regarding the existing state of knowledge about GDL, and to identify information gaps and areas where clarification of research findings are needed. The recent research indicates that we continue to learn about ways to extend GDL benefits, but there remain important questions in need of further inquiry. In terms of impact on industry, the review provides guidance for the future GDL research agenda.