Young drivers' optimism bias for accident risk and driving skill: Accountability and insight experience manipulations

Calibrated to drive: Measuring self-assessed driving ability and perceived workload after prolonged sitting and sleep restriction

Self-assessed driving ability may differ from actual driving performance, leading to poor calibration (i.e., differences between self-assessed driving ability and actual performance), increased risk of accidents and unsafe driving behaviour. Factors such as sleep restriction and sedentary behaviour can impact driver workload, which influences driver calibration. This study aims to investigate how sleep restriction and prolonged sitting impact driver workload and driver calibration to identify strategies that can lead to safer and better calibrated drivers. Participants (n = 84, mean age = 23.5 ± 4.8, 49 % female) undertook a 7-day laboratory study and were randomly allocated to a condition: sitting 9-h sleep opportunity (Sit9), breaking up sitting 9-h sleep opportunity (Break9), sitting 5-h sleep opportunity (Sit5) and breaking up sitting 5-h sleep opportunity (Break5). Break9 and Break5 conditions completed 3-min of light-intensity walking on a treadmill every 30 min between 09:00-17:00 h, while participants in Sit9 and Sit5 conditions remained seated. Each participant completed a 20-min simulated commute in the morning and afternoon each day and completed subjective assessments of driving ability and perceived workload before and after each commute. Objective driving performance was assessed using a driving simulator measuring speed and lane performance metrics. Driver calibration was analysed using a single component and 3-component Brier Score. Correlational matrices were conducted as an exploratory analysis to understand the strength and direction of the relationship between subjective and objective driving outcomes. Analyses revealed participants in Sit9 and Break9 were significantly better calibrated for lane variability, lane position and safe zone-lane parameters at both time points (p < 0.0001) compared to Sit5 and Break5. Break5 participants were better calibrated for safe zone-speed and combined safe zone parameters (p < 0.0001) and speed variability at both time points (p = 0.005) compared to all other conditions. Analyses revealed lower perceived workload scores at both time points for Sit9 and Break9 participants compared to Sit5 and Break5 (p = <0.001). Breaking up sitting during the day may reduce calibration errors compared to sitting during the day for speed keeping parameters. Future studies should investigate if different physical activity frequency and intensity can reduce calibration errors, and better align a driver's self-assessment with their actual performance.

Do comparative judgements affect the perceived relevance of mobile phone road safety campaigns?

OBJECTIVE

Given the prevalence of illegal mobile phone use while driving and reliance upon messaging campaigns in deterring the behavior, there is a need to explore to what extent comparative judgements may influence desired outcomes of such campaigns. This exploratory study investigated (a) the perceived relevance and influence of different mobile phone road safety campaigns within a sample of Queensland motorists who reported using their mobile phone while driving and (b) if these varied depending on whether participants believed that their crash risk whilst using a phone was higher (comparative pessimism), lower (comparative optimism) or similar to the same-age and sex driver.

METHODS

A total of 350 licensed drivers residing within Queensland (Australia) were included in this study, of which 200 reported using their hand-held phone on some occasion. Participation involved completing a 20-25 min online anonymous survey, which included viewing three mobile phone road safety campaigns (injury-based, sanction-based and humor) and responding to questions about the perceived relevance and impact of each campaign.

RESULTS

A total of 64 (32%) participants displayed comparative optimism, 50 displayed similar judgements (25%) and 86 (43%) exhibited comparative pessimism. First, it was found that the injury-based campaign was perceived to be significantly more relevant than the humor campaign. Second, whilst the relevance of each campaign did not vary as a function of group membership, the campaigns were significantly less relevant to those displaying comparative optimism relative to those with similar judgements and comparative pessimism. Finally, the injury-based campaign was perceived to be significantly more influential than the other campaigns. However, overall, participants displaying comparative optimism believed that they would be less influenced by the campaigns compared to those with comparative pessimism.

CONCLUSIONS

Although preliminary, these findings suggest that low perceptions of risk may dilute or extinguish the desired behavioral outcomes of mobile phone road safety campaigns. Nonetheless, experimental research is needed to examine these effects directly.

The monitoring requests on young driver's fatigue and take-over performance in prolonged conditional automated driving

INTRODUCTION

L3 automated vehicles can perform all dynamic driving tasks unless a take-over occurs due to operational limits. This issue is potentially important for young drivers who are vulnerable road users since they have skill deficits and easily evolve into aberrant driving. However, drivers lacking active involvement may be fatigued and drowsy. Previous research indicated that performing a voluntary non-driving-related task (NDRT) could keep drivers alert, but there was no difference in take-over performance with or without NDRT. Providing a monitoring request (MR) before a possible take-over request (TOR) exhibited better take-over performance in temporary automated driving. Therefore, the study aimed to investigate the effects of MR and voluntary NDRT on young drivers' fatigue and performance.

METHOD

Twenty-five young drivers experienced 60 min automated driving on a highway with low traffic density and a TOR prompted due to a collision event. A within-subjects was designed that comprised three conditions: NONE, TOR-only, and MR + TOR. Drivers were allowed to perform a self-paced phone NDRT during automated driving.

RESULTS

The PERCLOS and blink frequency data showed that playing phones could keep drivers vigilant. The take-over performance on whether taking phone had no difference, but with MRs condition exhibited better take-over performance including the shorter reaction time and the longer TTC. Subjective evaluations also showed the advantages of MRs with more safety, trust, acceptance, and lower workload.

CONCLUSIONS

Taking MRs had a positive effect on relieving fatigue and improving take-over performance. Furthermore, MRs could potentially improve the safety and acceptance of automated driving.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The MR design can be used in the automotive industry to ensure the safest interfaces between fatigue drivers and automation systems.

Rates and predictors of teen driver crash culpability

BACKGROUND

Motor-vehicle crash risk is highest among teen drivers. Despite a wealth of research on the topic, there are still many contributors to these crashes that are not well understood. The current study sought to examine the contribution of graduated driver licensing (GDL) restrictions, sex, age, roadway circumstances, and citation history to teen drivers' crash culpability.

METHOD

Crash system data from the Iowa Department of Transportation were linked with traffic-related charges from the Iowa Court Information System. Crashes involving teens aged 14 to 17 years between 2016 and 2019 were analyzed (N = 19,847). Culpability was determined using the driver contributing circumstances from the crash report. Moving and non-moving traffic citations issued prior to the date of each crash were considered. A multivariable logistic regression model was constructed to examine predictors of crash culpability.

RESULTS

Teen drivers were determined to be culpable for more than two thirds of crashes (N = 13,604, 68.54%). Culpability was more prevalent among males, younger teens, in rural areas, in the presence of reported roadway contributing circumstances, during hours of restricted nighttime driving, and among teens with citation histories that included both moving and non-moving citations. Similarly, multivariable model results indicated that the likelihood of culpability was higher among males, in rural areas, and at each stage of GDL compared to teen drivers with unrestricted licenses. While drivers with a history of both moving and non-moving violations were more likely to be culpable, those with a history of only moving or only non-moving violations were less likely to be culpable compared to those with no violation history.

CONCLUSION

Sex, crash location, and GDL stage were associated with teen driver crash culpability. A singular prior moving or non-moving violation may play a protective role in teen crash culpability.

CBT program to reduce recidivism risk for road crashes among adolescents and young adults: Results of a randomized controlled study and prospects

Road crashes are the first cause of mortality for young adults aged 18-25 years and the human factor contributes to 90-95% of events. The present study was carried out to determine the efficacity of the ECARR2 recurrence prevention program among adolescents and young adults at high risk of having a new traffic crash in the following months. A total of 288 participants having had a traffic crash that required going to the emergency room, at high risk of accident recurrence (ECARR≥5) were randomly allocated to either the intervention group (n = 144) or the control group (n = 144).

Results

revealed that the risk of recurrence was highest during the first 6 months (66% of recurrences). In per-protocol analysis population, at 6 months after inclusion, the accident recurrence rate was 14.2% ± 3.3% in the intervention group, and 23.5% ± 4.0% in the control group. The intervention had an effect per se, independently of the other predictors (p = 0.020). This effect was mediated by the three interaction variables: BDI, Impulsive Behavior Scale lack of perseverance, and Orientation to Happiness engagement. It was therefore through these dimensions that the intervention had an effect. In conclusion, the ECARR score predicts the risk of recurrence, risk which is the highest during the first 6 months. Finally, results confirm the predictive validity of the ECARR scale. The ECARR score had an effect on the risk of recurrence regardless of group (p = 0.045) and was predictive of recurrence (p = 0.045).A brief psychological intervention such as ECARR2 program, offered to young people ar hight risk of having a new crash, just after the crash, seems to halve the risk of recurrence at 6 months. Future research should improve the brief psychological intervention and its access via a mobile application or few hours in high school or in a driving school given.

Motorcycle rider error and engagement in distracting activities: A study using the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES-M)

Research on motorcycle rider distraction and inattention is limited, especially when compared to that on car drivers. This study examines motorcycle rider error and its relationship with engagement in distracting activities. Additionally, it provides an adaptation of the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale for use with motorcycle riders (ARDES-M). A sample of 418 motorcyclists responded to a web questionnaire consisting of the ARDES-M, a self-report measure of Involvement in Distracting Activities (IDA), a measure of everyday inattention (ARCES, Attention Related Cognitive Errors Scale) and socio-demographic and riding-related questions. Riding errors were associated with a higher level of engagement in distracting activities and a greater propensity for inattention in daily life. ARDES-M scores were associated with various types of self-reported traffic crashes and near-crashes, while self-reported distractions (IDA) were only linked with near-crashes. The most widely self-reported distracting activities were using map navigation, listening to the radio or to music and adjusting vehicle devices. The various uses of cell phones were relatively minor. Young riders reported higher levels of engagement in distracting activities and committing more riding errors. The ARDES-M showed good psychometric properties for the sample in Spain.

Correlations among self-report, static image, and video-based hazard perception assessments: The validity of a new Lithuanian hazard prediction test

Scholars suggest that improving hazard perception (HP) skills among different road users can lead to safer driving. To this end, a small number of countries have developed a national hazard perception test for their licensing procedures. The purpose of the current research is to develop and validate a new video-based hazard prediction test for the Lithuanian driving context. Eighty-eight drivers participated in the study. Initially, 25 naturalistic clips were included and edited into a hazard prediction test following the "what happens next?" paradigm. The overall score of the test was higher for experienced drivers when compared with novices. On further inspection the overall group difference was driven by 12 clips. The Lithuanian Hazard Perception test HPT-LIT featuring static images (Tūskė et al., 2019) and Hazard Perception Questionnaire developed by White et al. (2011) were used to validate the new test. This new version of the test (12 clips, LHP₁₂) showed acceptable psychometric properties. Drivers with less driving experience demonstrated poorer hazard prediction skills than experienced drivers. The results revealed a negative correlation between hazard prediction scores on LHP₁₂ and crash involvement in the novice driver group, as well as a positive correlation between prediction scores and self-reported hazard prediction skills. It was concluded that the new Lithuanian hazard test shows potential for future research.

A study of the factors affecting driving risk perception using the Bivariate Ordered Probit model

This paper aims to examine the key factors influencing driving risk perception in Iran. We conducted separate surveys for two groups of Iranian drivers, namely passenger car drivers and truck drivers. In order to assess driving risk perception, respondents were asked what they think about their Probability of Having a Road Accident (PHRA) and if they eventually have an accident as a driver, what they think about the Probability of it being Fatal or causing Severe Injury (PFSI). A Bivariate Ordered Probit model, which considers the possible correlation between PHRA and PFSI, was developed to explain the observed driving risk perception using type of vehicle, driving experience, socio-demographic information, and driving behaviour. According to the results, vehicle type, vehicle age, driving experience, sleep quality, at-fault accidents over the past three years, vehicles safety-related equipment, and education level have significant effects on driving risk perception (p-value < 0.05). In addition, this paper compares the driving risk perception of truck and passenger car drivers. The results show that truck drivers have a higher perception of PHRA and PFSI compared with passenger car drivers (p-value < 0.05). The results may convince policy-makers to consider the characteristics of the two categories of drivers when designing regulations.

Deterring illegal smartphone use while driving: Are perceptions of risk information associated with the impact of informal sanctions?

Advertising campaigns have used threat appeals to increase the perceptions of risk associated with dangerous driving behaviours. Building on recent research that suggests increasing the pertinence of informal sanctions (sense of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others) decreases the likelihood of illegal smartphone engagement while driving, this study aimed to determine if perceptions of risk information, that is, how effective drivers believe the information is in deterring their illegal use, is associated with perceptions of informal sanctions. An online survey of 1027 Victorians who self-reported illegal smartphone use while driving asked participants to rate the personal deterrent effectiveness of five types of risks associated with illegal smartphone use while driving. A hierarchical linear regression model explored the associations between the most effective risks and each informal sanction. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to experience guilt, fear of social loss and fear of physical loss when using their smartphones illegally. More frequent illegal smartphone engagement while driving was associated with decreased impact of informal sanctions. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to perceive each risk as effective. The most effective piece of information was, "Contributes to 16% of Victorian road deaths and serious injuries annually"; it was also the least known (32.7% males, 26.7% females). This message, alongside, "Increases risk of a crash comparable to those associated with driving under the influence of alcohol or cannabis" and, "A 2 s glance at your phone while driving at 50 km/h effectively means driving blind for 27 m", were associated with stronger perceptions of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others when thinking about using a smartphone illegally while driving. These results suggest tailoring and targeting these specific risk information may be effective in deterring illegal smartphone use while driving.

How Optimism Bias and Safety Climate Influence the Risk-Taking Behavior of Construction Workers

Risk taking among construction workers is a critical topic in construction safety research. The aim of this study was to empirically investigate how optimism bias and safety climate influence construction worker risk-taking behavior. A survey with a designed questionnaire was conducted to collect data from construction workers. A total of 183 construction workers participated in this study and completed the designed questionnaire. The collected data were subjected to statistical analysis by using structural equation modeling. Results show that optimism bias related to work risks positively influences construction worker risk-taking behavior, whereas safety climate and optimism bias related to hazard perception skills negatively affect the risk-taking behavior. These findings can enrich the literature on construction worker risk-taking behavior from the perspective of optimism bias and safety climate. Practical implications are provided for discouraging construction workers from taking risks at work.

"Does that mean I can't use my phone to pay when I'm in the Maccas drive thru?": Younger drivers' uncertainty and attitude toward smartphone law and punishment

This study employed a mixed methods approach (a survey [n = 2,774] and focus groups [n = 16]) to understand the perceptions of younger drivers (18-25) on current smartphone laws in the Australian state of Victoria. First, by analysing quantitative data gathered from an online survey regarding smartphone laws, perceptions of punishment when breaking the law, and attitudes to both the law and fines, this study found younger drivers were less likely to understand the law around phone use while driving, even after direct or indirect experience with police. Additionally, the severity and impact of fines were perceived as more impactful and severe among younger drivers, women, and those on lower incomes, and the most common types of illegal use younger drivers engaged with were navigation, music applications, and hands-free calling, mostly facilitated through Bluetooth with their device placed out of sight. Consequently, focus groups were conducted with a subset of these younger drivers to explore these findings in more depth. It was revealed that smartphone laws were perceived to be ambiguous, at times unreasonable, and difficult to access conclusive information regarding the law or receive information throughout the Graduated Licencing Program. Additionally, of full licenced drivers breaking smartphone laws (n = 807), 61.7 percent never used a cradle. Among probationary drivers breaking the law (n = 209), 76.1 percent never used a cradle. This suggests rampant surreptitious illegal use. As such, younger drivers learning to drive are also learning methods to avoid punishment while breaking smartphone laws. This included not using a cradle and opting instead for Bluetooth connectivity or engaging in hand-held use, a choice that continued into Full Licensed driving. The severity of punishment was not common knowledge and was perceived to be incommensurate to the risks associated with certain types of use. In their opinion all of these factors reduced the legitimacy of the law. Addressing these factors with evidence-based countermeasures may increase compliance and road safety.

"Like it's wrong, but it's not that wrong:" Exploring the normalization of risk-compensatory strategies among young drivers engaging in illegal smartphone use

INTRODUCTION

Young drivers are the most vulnerable road users and most likely to use a smartphone illegally while driving. Although when compared with drink-driving, attitudes to illegal smartphone risk are nearly identical, smartphone use among young drivers continues to increase.

METHOD

Four in-depth focus groups were conducted with 13 young (18-25 years) drivers to gain insight into their perceptions of the risks associated with the behavior. Our aim was to determine how drivers navigate that risk and if their behavior shapes and informs perceptions of norms.

RESULTS

Three key themes emerged: (a) participants perceived illegal smartphone use as commonplace, easy, and benign; (b) self-regulatory behaviors that compensate for risk are pervasive among illegal smartphone users; and (c) risk-compensation strategies rationalize risks and perceived norms, reducing the seriousness of transgression when compared with drink-driving. Young drivers rationalized their own use by comparing their selfregulatory smartphone and driving skills with those of "bad drivers," not law abiders. Practical Applications: These findings suggest that smartphone behaviors shape attitudes to risk, highlighting the importance for any countermeasure aimed at reducing illegal use to acknowledge how a young person's continued engagement in illegal smartphone use is justified by the dynamic composition of use, risk assessment and the perceived norms.

Factors associated with driver injury severity of lane changing crashes involving younger and older drivers

Lane change maneuvers can be a difficult driving task for many drivers, particularly, younger and inexperienced drivers and older drivers. Frequent and improper lane changing has a substantial effect on both traffic operations and safety. This study investigates the factors that contribute to the injury severity of crashes resulting from improper lane change maneuvers involving younger and older drivers in Alabama. Crash data for the study was obtained from the Critical Analysis Reporting Environment (CARE) system developed by the Center for Advanced Public Safety at the University of Alabama. Preliminary data analysis showed that younger drivers were responsible for about 63.1 % of the crashes. Random logit with heterogeneity in means models were developed to identify significant crash factors that were associated with the crash outcomes. The results show that younger male drivers were more likely to be severely injured in lane changing crashes whereas older male drivers were less likely to be severely injured. The results further show that younger drivers were more likely to sustain a major injury on six-lane highways whereas older drivers sustained major injuries from overtaking maneuvers on two-lane highways. It was further found that while younger drivers got into major injury crashes under daylight conditions, older drivers were more likely to be involved in major injury crashes under dark/unlit lighting conditions. Improper lane changing constitutes some form of aggressive driving which needs to be addressed considering that many lives are lost annually from the practice. The findings from this study may be used by road safety advocates and practitioners to identify what and how to target crash countermeasures to the younger and older driver population groups in the state.

The Lived Experience of Crossing the Road When You Have Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): The Perspectives of Parents of Children With DCD and Adults With DCD

Pedestrians are one of the most vulnerable groups at the roadside, furthermore, previous research has demonstrated perceptual-motor limitations in individuals with DCD which may put these individuals at even more at risk in the context of road crossing. However, it is unclear whether this is the lived experience of these individuals at the roadside. Furthermore, difficulties with road crossing and safety have been found in other neurodevelopmental disorders but the impact this might have on an individual with co-occurring difficulties is unknown. Therefore, we utilized a questionnaire to survey the lived experience of adults with DCD and parents of children with DCD with the specific objectives of describing behaviors exhibited by adults and children with DCD (the latter reported by parents) at the roadside and to determine the how these individuals perceive road crossing actions. For each of these we compared different co-occurrence groups. We also had one final objective which was not focused on road crossing but more on the general perception of accidents and unrealistic optimism. Individuals with co-occurrences which have previously been linked to unsafe crossing behaviors (i.e., ADHD, ASD, and LD) reported a greater regularity of dangerous looking behavior (forgetting to look, running without looking) and visibility (crossing between cars, crossing when you can't see), these adults and the parents of these children were seemingly aware of the risky nature of these behaviors. When asked "why" crossing ability might be different, perceptual and motor difficulties alongside heightened awareness of risk and lowered awareness of risk were all cited by participants. Unrealistic optimism was not an explanation for the risky behavior in adults with DCD and in fact, these adults demonstrated a clear understanding of the likelihood of accidents. The findings of this study suggest that road crossing is perceived to be more challenging for both children and adults with DCD and this needs to be taken into account when considering remediation for this group.

Effectiveness of a pre-licensing driver education program on five psycho-social factors over twelve months

A pre and post (1, 4, and 9-12 months follow up) survey of psychosocial variables was used to examine the effect of a compulsory pre-licence driver education program for drivers aged 16-20 years, in the Australian Capital Territory. While the final survey was collected by telephone, all other surveys were completed online. Two-way mixed ANOVAs revealed that sensation seeking and optimism bias increased over time while illusionary invulnerability and differential association fell. Participants perceived driving as more risky 9-12 months after completing the course compared to their views prior to the course. These results suggest that the program may have a limited effect on these five psychosocial factors over time. Policy makers may need to carefully consider the reasons for providing driver education, the optimal time during the licensing process to provide this education, and the financial and social costs of doing so.

Understanding the deterrent impact formal and informal sanctions have on illegal smartphone use while driving

The illegal use of a smartphone while driving increases the risk of crashes. As such, road authorities rely on countermeasures to reduce illegal smartphone use. Deterrence-based methods dominate road safety, however, perceptions and impact of formal (legal) and informal (non-legal) methods to deter illegal smartphone use in Australia have not yet been explored. The current study reports on a survey of 2774 drivers (47.0 % males) that own and regularly use a smartphone. The survey analysed the self-reported frequency of illegal smartphone use while driving, perceptions of formal and informal deterrence mechanisms, differences between perceived and informed deterrence, and deterrent predictors of illegal use. The findings revealed that illegal smartphone use is increasing in Victoria, Australia. Drivers that break the law perceive deterrent mechanisms significantly different from drivers that abide by the law, however, both groups view the prospect of hurting oneself as most impactful. Additionally, drivers tend to underestimate the consequences of illegal use, yet overestimate the certainty of apprehension. A binary logistic regression analysis revealed that only age, gender and informal sanctions such as social loss (stigma/peer disapproval), internal loss (shame/guilt/embarrassment), and physical loss (injury/property damage) were significant predictors of illegal use. None of the formal mechanisms were significant. Based on these findings, road safety interventions and future research should consider exploring the psychological characteristics of young people's perceptions of informal sanctions such as social loss (shame/embarrassment) and internal loss (guilt).

The Impact of Alcohol Hangover on Simulated Driving Performance During a 'Commute to Work'-Zero and Residual Alcohol Effects Compared

Driving is increasing across the world and road traffic accidents are a major cause of serious injuries and fatalities. The link between alcohol consumption and impaired driving has long been established and has led to legislation in many countries, with enforcement of legal limits based on blood alcohol concentration levels. Alcohol hangover research is an emerging field with a range of laboratory and naturalistic studies now clearly demonstrating the significant impairments that can result from hangover, even when alcohol levels are measured at or close to zero the day following a social drinking occasion. Driving is a commonplace activity but requires competency with a range of complex and potentially demanding tasks. Driving impaired can have serious consequences, including death and serious injury. There have been only limited alcohol hangover driving studies. The studies presented examined the consequences of alcohol hangover with a driving simulator contrasting a group with zero residual alcohol (N = 26) next day and another with residual alcohol (N = 26) assessed with breathalyzer in the morning before undertaking a 20 min commute to work. All participants completed a morning drive after a night without alcohol consumption and another after a night of social drinking. The driving scenarios were relatively demanding including traffic and pedestrians, traffic lights and other potential hazards in a mixed rural and urban journey. Subjective hangover and workload were assessed in addition to a range of driving performance variables, including divided attention, steering control and driving violations. Analyses contrasted driving in the no alcohol condition with the residual alcohol condition. The combined groups data (N = 52) was contrasted with the zero and residual alcohol groups. Significant contrasts were found for a range of driving measures, including divided attention, vehicle control, and driving violations as well as perceived workload. The pattern of impairment was broadly similar across both groups, indicating that whether or not residual alcohol was present, consistent driving impairment was seen. The relatively high number of significant variables may reflect the increased cognitive demand of the 20 min commute drive including busy and complex urban environments. This was also reflected in the significant increase in perceived workload recorded across the 6 dimensions of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). Associations between subjective measures and driving performance with hangover suggested a potential lack of awareness of impairment, though were limited in number. The overall findings indicate that the levels of impairment seen reflect those seen with alcohol impaired driving, even when breath alcohol is zero.

Driven to succeed: Improving adolescents' driving behaviors through a personal narrative-based psychosocial intervention in Serbia

Globally, more adolescents die from road traffic fatalities than from any other cause, and males are significantly more vulnerable than females. Driver education interventions directed at males are less likely to succeed than those directed at females, and stronger optimistic bias and overconfidence bias have been implicated as likely reasons. We report results from a quasi-experiment conducted in Serbia, targeting male and female adolescents. Stratified by size, forty schools were randomly assigned to either a personal-narrative intervention or a no-intervention control arm. Data were collected before the intervention (N = 1449) and again six months later (N = 1072). Risk perceptions improved for both males and females, and injunctive norms improved for females. Improvements in overconfidence bias and descriptive norms were predictive of improvements in high-risk driving behaviors. A significant interaction between improvements in injunctive norms and the intervention revealed that males whose injunctive norms improved were significantly more likely to be affected by the intervention, compared to the other groups. Implications for interventions are discussed.

The consumer-citizen duality: Ten reasons why citizens prefer safety and drivers desire speed

Cost-benefit analyses for transportation projects usually value impacts on safety and travel time through experiments in which consumers of mobility ('drivers') choose between routes which differ in safety and travel time. This approach has been criticized for failing to consider that private choices may not fully reflect citizens' preferences over public goods and means, a concept known as the consumer-citizen duality. Recent empirical evidence has established that individuals do indeed assign comparatively more value to safety in their role as citizens than in their role as drivers. Our study aims to provide explanations for this finding by presenting four stated choice experiments in which respondents were asked to make choices, both as citizens and as drivers, between routes that differed in travel time and safety. Subsequently, respondents were asked to provide reasons for their choices. We identify five cognitive and five normative explanations. The cognitive explanations suggest that individuals make diverging choices because their perceptions of accident risk differ between the two roles. Drivers will assign a relatively low value to mitigating accident risk because they believe that: (1) such risks are trivial on an individual level; (2) their personal risk is lower than the average risk; (3) their personal risk is controllable; (4) they would not be able to distinguish relative safety levels in real life; and (5) their choices for others are more risk-averse than choices for themselves and, unlike citizens, they are not explicitly evaluating risky choices for others. The normative explanations involve that individuals believe that the government should assign more value to safety compared to individual drivers because: (6) as citizen they are more prone to base their choices on social norms which prescribe risk-averse behaviour in this context; (7) governments have a duty of care concerning the safety of the transportation network; (8) drivers have a relatively high degree of responsibility to reduce their own travel times; (9) governments should account for drivers' tendencies to choose faster routes by building safer ones; and (10) governments should ensure the safety of the road network because this allows drivers to choose the fastest route without being concerned about the impact of their route choice on accident risk.

Visualization and analysis of mapping knowledge domain of road safety studies

Mapping knowledge domain (MKD) is an important application of visualization technology in Bibliometrics, which has been extensively applied in psychology, medicine, and information science. In this paper we conduct a systematic analysis of the development trend on road safety studies based on the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) and Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) articles published between 2000 and 2018 using the MKD software tools VOSviewer and Sci2 Tool. Based on our analysis, we first present the annual numbers of articles, origin countries, main research organizations and groups as well as the source journals on road safety studies. We then report the collaborations among the main research organizations and groups using co-authorship analysis. Furthermore, we adopt the document co-citation analysis, keywords co-occurrence analysis, and burst detection analysis to visually explore the knowledge bases, topic distribution, research fronts and research trends on road safety studies. The proposed approach based on the visualized analysis of MKD can be used to establish a reference information and research basis for the application and development of methods in the domain of road safety studies. In particular, our results show that the knowledge bases (classical documents) of road safety studies in the last two decades have focused on five major areas of "Crash Frequency Data Analysis", "Driver Behavior Questionnaire", "Safety in Numbers for Walkers and Bicyclists", "Road Traffic Injury and Prevention", and "Driving Speed and Road Crashes". Among the research topics, the five dominant clusters are "Causation and Injury Severity Analysis of Road Accidents", "Epidemiologic Study and Prevention of Road Traffic Injury", "Intelligent Transportation System and Active Safety", "Young drivers' driving behavior and psychology", and "Older drivers' psychological and physiological characteristics". Finally, the burst keywords in research trends include Cycling, Intelligent Transportation Systems, and Distraction.

Consistency between subjectively and objectively measured hazard perception skills among young male drivers

Young male drivers have lower hazard perception skills (HPS) than older and more experienced drivers and a tendency to overestimate their skills in hazardous situations. Both factors contribute to an over-representation in traffic accidents. Based on a sample of 63 drivers aged 18-24, this study compares the consistency of HPS measured by objective and subjective measures and the link between these measures is the key contribution of the study. Both visible and hidden hazards are included. Objective measures of HPS include responsiveness and eye movements while driving in a driving simulator. Subjective measures of HPS include self-reports derived based on the Hazard Perception Questionnaire (HPQ), Driving Skill Questionnaire (DSQ), and Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS). Results show that drivers who respond to the hazards on time, as compared to drivers who do not respond, have higher scores on subjective measures of HPS and higher driving skills in the visible but not in the hidden condition. Eye movement analysis confirms the difference and shows that response in time to hazards indicate higher HPS and young drivers are poor at detecting hidden hazards. Drivers with a response in time locate the hazard faster, have more fixations, but dwell less on the hazard. At the same time, those who do not respond have a later first fixation and fewer but longer fixations on the hazard. High sensation seeking drivers respond to visible hazards on time, suggesting that sensation seeking does not affect HPS negatively when the hazard is visible. To enhance the HPS among young drivers, the results of this study suggest that specific hazard perception training is relevant, especially for hazards that require more advanced HPS.

Understanding the psychological precursors of young drivers' willingness to speed and text while driving

This study applied the Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) to investigate the factors that may predict young drivers' (non-intentional) willingness to text while driving, text while stopped, and engage in high and low levels of speeding. In addition, the study sought to assess whether general optimism bias would predict young drivers' willingness to text and speed over and above the PWM. Licenced drivers (N = 183) aged 17-25 years (M = 19.84, SD = 2.30) in Queensland, Australia completed an online survey. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that the PWM was effective in explaining the variance in willingness to perform all four illegal driving behaviours. Particularly, young drivers who possessed favourable attitudes and a positive prototype perception towards these behaviours were more willing to engage in texting and speeding. In contrast to the study's predictions, optimistically biased beliefs decreased young drivers' willingness to text while stopped and engage in high and low levels of speeding. The findings of the study may help inform policy and educational campaigns to better target risky driving behaviours by considering the influence of attitudes, prototypes and the non-intentional pathway that may lead to engagement in texting while driving and stopped and engagement in high and low levels of speeding.

A qualitative approach to the study of the characteristics of individuals convicted of road traffic offences

Significant changes have been applied to the regulation of criminal law concerning road traffic in Spain, in a similar way to many of the countries surrounding us. This has led to a gradual increase in the number of individuals who are convicted with custodial sentences or sentenced to community service. Nevertheless, the available data on the psychosocial traits of road traffic offence convicts is highly limited. The objective of this qualitative study is to provide more insight into those convicted of road traffic offences through the use of focus groups, thus enabling the analysis of their attitudes towards sentences related to road safety offences, opinions regarding their driving styles, the profile of convicts of road traffic offences and how they feel about being labelled as delinquents. The results of this study are particularly relevant with regards to improving the rehabilitation process of convicts of road safety offences.

A trial of retrofitted advisory collision avoidance technology in government fleet vehicles

In-vehicle collision avoidance technology (CAT) has the potential to prevent crash involvement. In 2015, Transport for New South Wales undertook a trial of a Mobileye 560 CAT system that was installed in 34 government fleet vehicles for a period of seven months. The system provided headway monitoring, lane departure, forward collision and pedestrian collision warnings, using audio and visual alerts. The purpose of the trial was to determine whether the technology could change the driving behaviour of fleet vehicle drivers and improve their safety. The evaluation consisted of three components: (1) analysis of objective data to examine effects of the technology on driving behaviour, (2) analysis of video footage taken from a sample of the vehicles to examine driving circumstances that trigger headway monitoring and forward collision warnings, and (3) a survey completed by 122 of the 199 individuals who drove the trial vehicles to examine experiences with, and attitudes to, the technology. Analysis of the objective data found that the system resulted in changes in behaviour with increased headway and improved lane keeping, but that these improvements dissipated once the warning alerts were switched off. Therefore, the system is capable of altering behaviour but only when it is actively providing alerts. In-vehicle video footage revealed that over a quarter of forward collision warnings were false alarms, in which a warning event was triggered despite there being no vehicle travelling ahead. The surveyed drivers recognised that the system could improve safety but most did not wish to use it themselves as they found it to be distracting and felt that it would not prevent them from having a crash. The results demonstrate that collision avoidance technology can improve driving behaviour but drivers may need to be educated about the potential benefits for their driving in order to accept the technology.

Accident frequency and unrealistic optimism: Children's assessment of risk

Accidental injury is a major cause of mortality and morbidity among children, warranting research on their risk perceptions. Three hundred and seven children aged 10-11 years assessed the frequency, danger and personal risk likelihood of 8 accidents. Two social-cognitive biases were manifested. The frequency of rare accidents (e.g. drowning) was overestimated, and the frequency of common accidents (e.g. bike accidents) underestimated; and the majority of children showed unrealistic optimism tending to see themselves as less likely to suffer these accidents in comparison to their peers, offering superior skills or parental control of the environment as an explanation. In the case of pedestrian accidents, children recognised their seriousness, underestimated the frequency of this risk and regarded their own road crossing skill as protection. These findings highlight the challenging task facing safety educators who, when teaching conventional safety knowledge and routines, also need to alert children to the danger of over-confidence without disabling them though fear.

Using trip diaries to mitigate route risk and risky driving behavior among older drivers

To reduce exposure to risky and challenging driving situations and prolong mobility and independence, older drivers self-regulate their driving behavior. But self-regulation can be challenging because it depends on drivers' ability to assess their limitations. Studies using self-reports, survey data, and hazard and risk perception tests have shown that driving behavior feedback can help older drivers assess their limitations and adjust their driving behavior. But only limited work has been conducted in developing feedback technology interventions tailored to meet the information needs of older drivers, and the impact these interventions have in helping older drivers self-monitor their driving behavior and risk outcomes. The vehicles of 33 drivers 65 years and older were instrumented with OBD2 devices. Older drivers were provided access to customized web-based Trip Diaries that delivered post-trip feedback of the routes driven, low-risk route alternatives, and frequency of their risky driving behaviors. Data were recorded over four months, with baseline driving behavior collected for one month. Generalized linear mixed effects regression models assessed the effects of post-trip feedback on the route risk and driving behaviors of older drivers. Results showed that post-trip feedback reduced the estimated route risk of older drivers by 2.9% per week, and reduced their speeding frequency on average by 0.9% per week. Overall, the Trip Diary feedback reduced the expected crash rate from 1 in 6172 trips to 1 in 7173 trips, and the expected speeding frequency from 46% to 39%. Thus providing older drivers with tailored feedback of their driving behavior and crash risk could help them appropriately self-regulate their driving behavior, and improve their crash risk outcomes.

Evaluating public education messages aimed at monitoring and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones among young drivers

Young drivers are more likely than any other age group to access social interactive technology (e.g., Facebook, E-mail) on a smartphone while driving. The current study formed part of a larger investigation and was guided by The Step Approach to Message Design and Testing (SatMDT) to evaluate the relative effectiveness of three different public education messages aimed at reducing smartphone use among young drivers. The messages were each adapted to the specific behaviours of monitoring/reading and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones. Participants (n=288; 199F, 89M) were drivers aged 17-25 years who resided in the Australian state of Queensland. Message acceptance (i.e., intention and effectiveness) and message rejection were both assessed using a self-report survey. Multivariate analyses found that, overall, the messages targeting monitoring/reading behaviour were considered more effective than those targeting responding behaviour. The message that challenged the underlying motivation that believing you are a good driver makes it easier to monitor/read social interactive technology while driving was considered particularly effective by young male drivers.

The effect of performance feedback on drivers' hazard perception ability and self-ratings

Drivers' hazard perception ability has been found to predict crash risk, and novice drivers appear to be particularly poor at this skill. This competency appears to develop only slowly with experience, and this could partially be a result of poor quality performance feedback. We report an experiment in which we provided high-quality artificial feedback on individual drivers' performance in a validated video-based hazard perception test via either: (1) a graph-based comparison of hazard perception response times between the test-taker, the average driver, and an expert driver; (2) a video-based comparison between the same groups; or (3) both. All three types of feedback resulted in both an improvement in hazard perception performance and a reduction in self-rated hazard perception skill, compared with a no-feedback control group. Video-based and graph-based feedback combined resulted in a greater improvement in hazard perception performance than either of the individual components, which did not differ from one another. All three types of feedback eliminated participants' self-enhancement bias for hazard perception skill. Participants judged both interventions involving video feedback to be significantly more likely to improve their real-world driving than the no feedback control group. While all three forms of feedback had some value, the combined video and graph feedback intervention appeared to be the most effective across all outcome measures.

Commercial Truck Driver Health and Safety

Reducing distracters detrimental to commercial truck driving is a critical component of improving the safety performance of commercial drivers, and makes the highways safer for all drivers. This study used a driving simulator to examine effects of cell phone, texting, and email distractions as well as self-reported driver optimism bias on the driving performance of commercial truck drivers. Results revealed that more visually demanding tasks were related to poorer driving performance. However, the cell phone task resulted in less off-the-road eye glances. Drivers reporting being “very skilled” displayed poorer driving performance than those reporting being “skilled.” Onboard communication devices provide a practical, yet visually and manually demanding, solution for connecting drivers and dispatchers. Trucking company policies should minimize interaction between dispatchers and drivers when the truck is in motion. Training facilities should integrate driving simulators into the instruction of commercial drivers, targeting over-confident drivers.

Testing a structural model of young driver willingness to uptake Smartphone Driver Support Systems

There is growing interest in the potential value of using phone applications that can monitor driver behaviour (Smartphone Driver Support Systems, 'SDSSs') in mitigating risky driving by young people. However, their value in this regard will only be realised if young people are willing to use this technology. This paper reports the findings of a study in which a novel structural model of willingness to use SDSSs was tested. Grounded in the driver monitoring and Technology Acceptance (TA) research literature, the model incorporates the perceived risks and gains associated with potential SDSS usage and additional social cognitive factors, including perceived usability and social influences. A total of 333 smartphone users, aged 18-24, with full Irish driving licenses completed an online questionnaire examining willingness or Behavioural Intention (BI) to uptake a SDSS. Following exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, structural equation modelling indicated that perceived gains and social influence factors had significant direct effects on BI. Perceived risks and social influence also had significant indirect effects on BI, as mediated by perceived gains. Overall, this model accounted for 72.5% of the variance in willingness to uptake SDSSs. Multi-group structural models highlighted invariance of effects across gender, high and low risk drivers, and those likely or unlikely to adopt novel phone app technologies. These findings have implications for our understanding of the willingness of young drivers to adopt and use SDSSs, and highlight potential factors that could be targeted in behavioural change interventions seeking to improve usage rates.

Prevalence of and attitudes about distracted driving in college students

OBJECTIVE

To identify current distracted driving (DD) behaviors among college students, primarily those involving cell phone use, and elucidate the opinions of the students on the most effective deterrent or intervention for reducing cell phone use.

METHODS

Students enrolled at 12 colleges and universities were recruited to participate in an online, anonymous survey. Recruitment was done via school-based list-serves and posters. School sizes ranged from 476 to over 30,000. The validated survey included 38 questions; 17 were specifically related to distracted driving.

RESULTS

Four thousand nine hundred sixty-four participants completed the surveys; the average age was 21.8, 66% were female, 82.7% were undergraduates, and 47% were white/non-Hispanic. Additionally, 4,517 (91%) reported phoning and/or texting while driving; 4,467 (90%) of drivers said they talk on the phone while driving; 1,241 (25%) reported using a hands-free device "most of the time"; 4,467 (90%) of drivers reported texting while driving; 2,488 (50%) reported sending texts while driving on the freeway; 2,978 (60%) while in stop-and-go traffic or on city streets; and 4,319 (87%) at traffic lights. Those who drove more often were more likely to drive distracted. When asked about their capability to drive distracted, 46% said they were capable or very capable of talking on a cell phone and driving, but they felt that only 8.5% of other drivers were capable. In a multivariate model, 9 predictors explained 44% of the variance in DD, which was statistically significant, F (17, 4945) = 224.31; P <.0001; R(2) = 0.44. The four strongest predictors (excluding driving frequency) were self-efficacy (i.e., confidence) in driving while multitasking (β = 0.37), perception of safety of multitasking while driving (β = 0.19), social norms (i.e., observing others multitasking while driving; β = 0.29), and having a history of crashing due to multitasking while driving (β = 0.11).

CONCLUSIONS

Distracted driving is a highly prevalent behavior among college students who have higher confidence in their own driving skills and ability to multitask than they have in other drivers' abilities. Drivers' self-efficacy for driving and multitasking in the car, coupled with a greater likelihood of having witnessed DD behaviors in others, greatly increased the probability that a student would engage in DD. Most students felt that policies, such as laws impacting driving privilege and insurance rate increases, would influence their behavior.

Potential determinants of drink driving in young adults

OBJECTIVE

The main purposes of this study were to examine the usefulness of the variables of the theory of planned behavior (viz. attitudes, social norms, and self-efficacy) and to explore the relationship between optimism bias and drink driving in young adults. In addition, we explored gender differences in drink driving with provision for the effect of variables such as driving frequency and alcohol consumption.

METHODS

Data were collected via a questionnaire administered to 274 drivers (59.9% females) aged 18-30 years (24.36 ± 2.96).

RESULTS

The results obtained with provision for driving frequency revealed substantial differences in driving behaviors between genders. Thus, males were more prone to drink driving, perceived less disapproval by their significant others (parents and peers), and felt less able to avoid drinking-and-driving situations. In addition, they self-reported more frequent alcohol consumption and driving under the influence. The results also confirm the significance of peers' subjective norms and attitudes to drink driving in males. Overconfidence in their own driving skills for driving drunk and perceived behavioral control were found to be significant predictors for drink driving in females. Optimism bias also played a slightly significant role in predicting drink driving but only in females.

CONCLUSIONS

The important practical implications of these results with a view to designing effective interventions to prevent the risks associated with drink driving in the young population are discussed. Interventions should focus on young people's perceptions of group norms and promoting cautionary driving choices and alternatives to drink driving.

A scoping review of risk behaviour interventions in young men

Background

Young adult males commonly engage in risky behaviours placing them at risk of acute and chronic health conditions. The purpose of this scoping review was to provide an overview of existing literature, describing the interventions targeting risk behaviours in young adult males.

Methods

A search of seven electronic databases, grey literature and relevant journals reported in English language until May 2013 was conducted. All interventions that promoted healthy behaviours or reductions in risky behaviours to treat or prevent an associated health issue(s) in young adult males (17-35 years) in upper-middle and high-income countries were included. For inclusion the appropriate age range had to be reported and the sample had to be young adult male participants only or the outcomes reported with stratification by age and/or sex to include young adult males. Risk behaviours included: physical inactivity, poor diet, alcohol use, tobacco smoking, recreational drug use, unsafe sexual behaviours, tanning/sun exposure, violence, unsafe vehicle driving, gambling and self-harm.

Results

The search strategy identified 16,739 unique citations and the full-text of 1149 studies were retrieved and screened with 100 included studies focussed on: physical inactivity (27%), alcohol use (25%), unsafe sexual behaviour (21%), poor diet (5%), unsafe vehicle driving (5%), tobacco smoking (4%), recreational drug use (2%), and tanning/sun exposure (1%) with no relevant studies targeting violence, gambling or self-harm. Also 10% of the studies targeted multiple risk behaviours. The most common study design was randomized controlled trials (62%). Face-to-face was the most common form of intervention delivery (71%) and the majority were conducted in university/college settings (46%). There were 46 studies (46%) that included young adult male participants only, the remaining studies reported outcomes stratified by age and/or sex.

Conclusion

Risk behaviours in young men have been targeted to some extent, but the amount of research varies across risk behaviours. There is a need for more targeted and tailored interventions that seek to promote healthy behaviours or decrease risky behaviours in young men.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-957) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Wheels, skills and thrills: a social marketing trial to reduce aggressive driving from young men in deprived areas

Young men from poorer backgrounds are associated with high road traffic collision levels. However, solving this problem has proven very difficult. Hence this paper summarises the findings of a UK government funded two-year trial of a cross-discipline intervention to reduce aggressive driving amongst this group. The intervention reported on here departed from traditional approaches such as fear appeals, stand-alone educational approaches, or punitive measures. Instead, the discipline of social marketing was used to provide overarching direction and structure for the trial, with a key focus on motivation and engagement. The project rested on a strong education and training platform and included a bespoke coaching programme, incentives, and an in-vehicle measurement and feedback device. The project had three development phases leading to the final trial. First, a literature and case study review identified possible design strategies. Second, these strategies were explored using primary research in the form of a qualitative inquiry. Third, a pre-trial design phase sought to introduce key components of the intervention to the trial cohort, retaining some flexibility before committing to the final design. Young males with a history of challenging behaviour (e.g. criminal records, driving convictions) from an economically deprived area within a UK city were recruited. Of 42 recruits, 23 successfully completed the trial. Behaviour changes were measured pre-, during and post-trial through a combination of driver performance data measured by in-vehicle data recorders (IVDRs), assessments of driving undertaken by trained observers, and self-assessment surveys and interviews with trial participants. Results indicate a significant average improvement in driving skills amongst participants who completed the trial. Given the difficulty in engaging and changing behaviour of this specific group, this is regarded as a significant finding. In summary the study provides an indication of proof of concept for the intervention in improving driving skills. However the limited sample size and lack of control group mean that further work will be required to validate these findings. It is recommended that a feasibility study with higher cohort volumes is undertaken, before attempting a full scale trial.

Stereotype threat and hazard perception among provisional license drivers

Stereotype threat refers to the negative impact a stereotype about one's group can have on one's performance in domains relevant to the stereotype. In the current paper, we explore whether the negative stereotype of provisional license drivers (PLDs) might produce stereotype threat in a driving-related hazard perception task. We manipulate threat by asking participants to self-identify as PLDs in a categorization condition, or by reminding PLD participants explicitly of the stereotype of PLDs in an explicit stereotype condition. Results reveal increments in hazard perception in the categorization condition, and decrements in hazard perception in the explicit stereotype condition. Mediation analysis reveals that hazard perception performance is fully mediated by increased effort in the categorization condition and by decreased effort in the explicit stereotype condition. We discuss these findings in terms of their implications for stereotype threat and its mediators, and for public policy that explicitly discriminates between PLDs and other driver groups.

Driver training interests of a Spanish sample of young drivers and its relationship with their self-assessment skills concerning risky driving behavior

Poor driving self-assessment skills (e.g., over-confidence) have been pointed out as an important explanatory factor behind young drivers' accident involvement. This paper explores (1) what young drivers miss in their training as drivers in order to analyze whether an assessment of one's own driving skills plays an important role in their desire to improve as drivers, and (2) how these training interests are related to an estimate of their self-assessment skills concerning risky driving behavior. For this purpose, a study was conducted using a survey with a blocked sampling design of novice drivers. The survey solicited respondents' self-report about (1) the contents of training courses that they feel would improve their driving, (2) their risky driving behavior, and (3) their likelihood of being involved in a risky driving situation. From the initial sample invited to participate, of nearly 1300 people, we finally obtained complete data from 321 young Spanish drivers. Two main results were apparent from our data analysis: (1) the novice drivers were mainly interested in improving their ability to recognize their strengths and weaknesses as drivers (i.e., self-assessment skills); (2) a significant relationship was found between novice drivers' interests and their current self-assessment skills concerning risky driving behavior. Specifically, there was greater general interest expressed in post-license training by the under-confident self-assessors than the over-confident ones. These results provide a relevant input which should be taken into account when designing driver training programs for novice drivers. Moreover, the relationship between their training interests and their risky driving self-assessment skills introduces an additional factor to be considered in the implementation of these training programs.

Individual differences in drivers' cognitive processing of road safety messages

Using Gray and McNaughton's (2000) revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST), we examined the influence of personality on processing of words presented in gain-framed and loss-framed anti-speeding messages and how the processing biases associated with personality influenced message acceptance. The r-RST predicts that the nervous system regulates personality and that behaviour is dependent upon the activation of the behavioural activation system (BAS), activated by reward cues and the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS), activated by punishment cues. According to r-RST, individuals differ in the sensitivities of their BAS and FFFS (i.e., weak to strong), which in turn leads to stable patterns of behaviour in the presence of rewards and punishments, respectively. It was hypothesised that individual differences in personality (i.e., strength of the BAS and the FFFS) would influence the degree of both message processing (as measured by reaction time to previously viewed message words) and message acceptance (measured three ways by perceived message effectiveness, behavioural intentions, and attitudes). Specifically, it was anticipated that, individuals with a stronger BAS would process the words presented in the gain-frame messages faster than those with a weaker BAS and individuals with a stronger FFFS would process the words presented in the loss-frame messages faster than those with a weaker FFFS. Further, it was expected that greater processing (faster reaction times) would be associated with greater acceptance for that message. Driver licence holding students (N=108) were recruited to view one of four anti-speeding messages (i.e., social gain-frame, social loss-frame, physical gain-frame, and physical loss-frame). A computerised lexical decision task assessed participants' subsequent reaction times to message words, as an indicator of the extent of processing of the previously viewed message. Self-report measures assessed personality and the three message acceptance measures. As predicted, the degree of initial processing of the content of the social gain-framed message mediated the relationship between the reward sensitive trait and message effectiveness. Initial processing of the physical loss-framed message partially mediated the relationship between the punishment sensitive trait and both message effectiveness and behavioural intention ratings. These results show that reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity traits influence cognitive processing of gain-framed and loss-framed message content, respectively, and subsequently, message effectiveness and behavioural intention ratings. Specifically, a range of road safety messages (i.e., gain-frame and loss-frame messages) could be designed which align with the processing biases associated with personality and which would target those individuals who are sensitive to rewards and those who are sensitive to punishments.

Chinese carless young drivers' self-reported driving behavior and simulated driving performance

OBJECTIVE

Carless young drivers refers to those drivers aged between 18 and 25 years who have a driver's license but seldom have opportunities to practice their driving skills because they do not have their own cars. Due to China's lower private car ownership, many young drivers become carless young drivers after licensure, and the safety issue associated with them has raised great concern in China. This study aims to provide initial insight into the self-reported driving behaviors and simulated driving performance of Chinese carless young drivers.

METHODS

Thirty-three carless young drivers and 32 young drivers with their own cars (as a comparison group) participated in this study. A modified Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) with a 4-factor structure (errors, violations, attention lapses, and memory lapses) was used to study carless young drivers' self-reported driving behaviors. A simulated driving experiment using a low-cost, fixed-base driving simulator was conducted to measure their simulated driving performance (errors, violations, attention lapses, driving maintenance, reaction time, and accidents).

RESULTS

Self-reported DBQ outcomes showed that carless young drivers reported similar errors, more attention lapses, fewer memory lapses, and significantly fewer violation behaviors relative to young drivers with their own cars, whereas simulated driving results revealed that they committed significantly more errors, attention lapses, and violation behaviors than the comparison group. Carless young drivers had a lower ability to maintain the stability of speed and lane position, drove more cautiously approaching and passing through red traffic lights, and committed more accidents during simulated driving. A tendency to speed was not found among carless young drivers; their average speed and speeding frequency were all much lower than that of the comparison group. Lifetime mileage was the only significant predictor of carless young drivers' self-reported violations, simulated violations, speed, and reaction time, whereas no significant predictor was found for young drivers with their own cars.

CONCLUSIONS

Carless young drivers had poorer driving performance and were more overconfident of their self-reported driving skills compared to those young drivers with greater access to vehicles. Given that the lifetime mileage positively predicted the simulated violations measure of carless young drivers, immediate interventions are needed to help them increase driving exposure and gain driving experience gradually before moving to more challenging on-road driving tasks. Supplemental materials are available for this article.

Gender stereotypes and superior conformity of the self in a sample of cyclists

In the field of driving, people tend to think they are more competent and more cautious than others. This is the superior conformity of the self (SCS). Our main hypothesis was that, among cyclists, women would show a higher SCS on cautiousness, though men would show a higher SCS concerning competence. 1799 cyclists provided a self-assessment of their own cautiousness and of other people's cautiousness. The same procedure was used for competence. Consistent with the hypothesis, the SCS was gender-specific: it was more prominent for women concerning cautiousness and more prominent for men concerning competence. These results could explain why people tend to ignore the safety campaigns. They also indicate the importance of adapting messages concerning safety measures to gender.

The effects of non-evaluative feedback on drivers' self-evaluation and performance

Drivers' tend to overestimate their competences, which may result in risk taking behavior. Providing drivers with feedback has been suggested as one of the solutions to overcome drivers' inaccurate self-evaluations. In practice, many tests and driving simulators provide drivers with non-evaluative feedback, which conveys information on the level of performance but not on what caused the performance. Is this type of feedback indeed effective in reducing self-enhancement biases? The current study aimed to investigate the effect of non-evaluative performance feedback on drivers' self-evaluations using a computerized hazard perception test. A between-subjects design was used with one group receiving feedback on performance in the hazard perception test while the other group not receiving any feedback. The results indicated that drivers had a robust self-enhancement bias in their self-evaluations regardless of the presence of performance feedback and that they systematically estimated their performance to be higher than they actually achieved in the test. Furthermore, they devalued the credibility of the test instead of adjusting their self-evaluations in order to cope with the negative feelings following the failure feedback. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these counterproductive effects of non-evaluative feedback.