How reinforcement sensitivity and perceived risk influence young drivers' reported engagement in risky driving behaviors

Sex modulated the relationship between trait approach motivation and decision-making

It has been observed that one's Behavioral Approach System (BAS) can have an effect on decision-making under uncertainty, although the results have been mixed. To discern the underlying neural substrates, we hypothesize that sex may explain the conflicting results. To test this idea, a large sample of participants was studied using resting state fMRI, utilizing fractional Amplitude of Low Frequency Fluctuations (fALFF) and Resting-State Functional Connectivity (rsFC) techniques. The results of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) revealed an interaction between sex and BAS, particularly in the last 60 trials (decision-making under risk). Males with high BAS showed poorer performance than those with low BAS. fALFF analysis showed a significant interaction between BAS group and sex in the left superior occipital gyrus, as well as the functional connectivity between this region and the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Additionally, this functional connectivity was further positively correlated with male performance in the IGT, particularly in the decision-making under risk stage. Furthermore, it was found that the functional connectivity between left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and left superior occipital gyrus could mediate the relationship between BAS and decision-making in males, particularly in the decision-making under risk stage. These results suggest possible sex-based differences in decision-making, providing an explanation for the inconsistent results found in prior research. Since the research was carried out exclusively with Chinese university students, it is essential to conduct further studies to investigate whether the findings can be generalized.

Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol, Cannabis, and Delta-8 THC: Perceived Likelihood, Risk Perceptions, and Behaviors

Driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol or cannabis poses public health risks. Little is known about DUI of Delta-8 THC, a newer cannabis product. Using 2022 survey data among 189 U.S. adults ages 18-25 (58.73% male, 59.26% non-Hispanic White), multivariable logistic regression examined substance-specific (alcohol, cannabis, Delta-8) DUI perceived likelihood and risk in relation to past-year DUI among those with past-year use of each. Overall, 72.49% reported past-year alcohol use, 50.53% cannabis, and 22.46% Delta-8. Among those reporting past-year use of each respective substance, 33.58% reported DUI of alcohol, 32.63% cannabis, and 57.14% Delta-8. On average, participants had the same DUI perceived likelihood ("somewhat unlikely") across substances and perceived alcohol DUI as riskiest. Higher alcohol DUI perceived likelihood and lower perceived risk were associated with alcohol-related DUI. Greater cannabis-related perceived likelihood (but not risk) was associated with cannabis-related DUI. Neither Delta-8 DUI perceived likelihood nor risk were associated with Delta-8 DUI. In sum, perceived DUI likelihood for alcohol, cannabis, or Delta-8 tended to be similar. Among those with past-year use of each, the proportion of DUI was highest for Delta-8. Interventions should target DUI-related perceived likelihood and promote protective behavioral strategies that reduce substance-specific DUI risk.

Effectiveness of implementing a Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) law among young Serbian drivers

INTRODUCTION

Young novice drivers have higher rates of engagement in road crashes worldwide, often owing to unfavorable attitudes toward road safety or lack of knowledge, experience, and risk consciousness. However, the implementation of graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems has proven effective in reducing the high incidence of young drivers involved in crashes.

METHOD

The purpose of this study was to compare the change in driving outcomes (e.g., attitudes toward traffic safety, behavior patterns while driving, risk assessment in traffic, assessment of personal driving skills, and involvement in traffic crashes) of young drivers prior to and following the implementation of a GDL law. Respondents (n = 642) completed a battery of questions, including a driver attitudes questionnaire (Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale), a self-assessed driving ability questionnaire, and a risk perception questionnaire. Of the total sample size, 324 drivers passed the old system of training driver's license candidates, and 318 drivers passed the new GDL system.

RESULTS

The results showed that drivers licensed with GDL reported safer attitudes toward traffic rule violations and speed, and higher levels of safety orientation with regard to their driving abilities. They also reported much higher levels of risk perception and lower exposure to risky situations (risky driving exposure). There were no differences between GDL drivers and non-GDL drivers in terms of self-reported crashes or transient or fixed violations. In addition, GDL was not related to the number of traffic crashes, the number of fatalities, or serious and slight injuries in crashes involving young drivers in crashes obtained from official records.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that GDL contributed to the improvement of drivers' attitudes and understanding of risk but did not contribute to significant changes in the behavior of young drivers and traffic crashes. In addition, the GDL program in Serbia only ranks fair on the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) scale. Strengthening the GDL program in Serbia with additional components in line with GDL programs rated as good by the IIHS scale could improve the safety of young and novice drivers in traffic.

The effect of risk perception and other psychological factors on mobile phone use while crossing the street among pedestrians

Pedestrians may be the most vulnerable group among road users, and mobile phone use while crossing the street is ubiquitous worldwide in this information era. However, previous studies have found that such distracting behaviors may increase the risk of injury and death. The present study primarily aimed to explore the effect of reinforcement sensitivity theory components (i.e., Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), Behavioral Approach System (BAS)), risk perception, attitudes towards red light running, and fear of missing out (FoMO) on mobile phone use while crossing the street among pedestrians. Risk perception was measured in three ways (i.e., assessing the probability of a negative outcome (RP-Pro), judging the severity of the consequence (RP-Se), and evaluating the general riskiness of the behavior (RP-Ri)). An online questionnaire survey was conducted, and only valid responses (N = 425) were used for subsequent data analyses. The results indicated significant differences in the responses across the risk perception questions with different focuses. Participants who reported engaging in more distracted street-crossing (i.e., high-risk takers) perceived a significantly lower risk, and this difference did not depend on the focus of risk perception. Three path analysis models with differential risk perception constructs (RP-Pro, RP-Se, and RP-Ri) were developed to examine the relationship between risk perception and distracted street-crossing. The results suggest that the relationship between these two variables does not depend on the focus of the risk perception questions. Moreover, FoMO was a predictor of mobile phone use while crossing the street, while attitudes had both direct and indirect effects on behavior. BIS and BAS had the lowest total effect on mobile phone use among pedestrians. In particular, a direct association between BAS and distracted street-crossing was found only in the model in which risk perception was measured by judging the severity of crashes caused by mobile phone use distraction. This study may be meaningful for understanding the associations between psychological factors and mobile phone use among pedestrians. The implications of the findings for the development of safety interventions are discussed in this study.

Cognitive Biases, Risk Perception, and Risky Driving Behaviour

This study evaluated the relationship between drivers’ cognitive biases (i.e., optimism bias, illusion of control) and risky driving behaviour. It also investigated the mediational role of risk perception in the relationship between cognitive biases and self-reported risky driving. The sample included 366 drivers (Mage = 39.13, SD = 13.63 years) who completed scales measuring optimism bias, illusion of control, risk perception, and risky driving behaviour, as well as demographic information. The results showed that risky driving behaviour was negatively predicted by optimism bias and positively predicted by the illusion of control. Further, risk perception negatively correlated with risky behaviour and also mediated the relation between both optimism bias and illusion of control with risky driving. The practical implications of these results for traffic safety and future research are discussed.

Assessing Willingness to Engage in Risky Driving Behaviour Using Naturalistic Driving Footage: The Role of Age and Gender

Young novice drivers are more prone than older drivers to get involved in a risky driving situation. Some young drivers underestimate risk while overestimating their driving abilities, increasing the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviour. Age and inexperience both influence risk estimation, though it is not clear which of these variables is more important. Can drivers’ willingness to engage in risky behaviour be assessed in a similar way to hazard perception skill using video-based risky situations? The aim of the current study was to assess whether a video-based tool could measure the willingness to participate in risky driving situations and whether it can distinguish between different types of risky driving scenarios across gender and driver age groups. We also explored the moderating effect of age and gender on drivers’ experience in relation to the risky manoeuvres and participants’ willingness to engage in risky situations. Participants were presented with naturalistic videos from the perspective of the driver that contained active risky situations (result of driver’s own actions) and were asked to make a decision regarding a potential action (to overtake a bus/bicycle or pass through an amber light) and whether they would accelerate at this point. Participants reported that they were more willing to accelerate and overtake cyclists and buses and less willing to pass a light in amber. Young drivers were more willing to both engage in the risky behaviours and accelerate than older drivers, with young males reporting higher scores than the other groups. Gender differences were observed, with males being more prone to overtake and pass through a light in amber than females; however, this difference was not observed for the intention to accelerate. All the above effects remained when we tested the impact of experience on decision making while controlling for age and gender, although driving experience was no longer significant. These results demonstrate that drivers’ intention to assume risk can indeed be measured in a similar video-based methodology to that used by hazard perception tests. The findings raise the possibility of assessing and training drivers on a wider range of safety-related behaviours.

Self-regulation differences across learner and probationary drivers: The impact on risky driving behaviours

Risky driving behaviours are a known contributor to young drivers' overrepresentation in road trauma, with self-regulation suggested as an important associated construct, but yet to be extensively explored. The aims of this study were to examine the utility of self-determination theory in explaining risky driving behaviours and to explore differences between young Learner and Provisional (P1)- licensed drivers in regard to their self-regulated safety orientation and engagement in risky driving behaviours. Learners (n = 1038) and P1(n = 589) drivers, aged 16-19 years, responded to a 91-item online survey, including self-regulated safety orientation items adapted from self-determination theory and inattentive and intentional risky driving behaviour items. Results showed that self-determination theory had good predictive power for the two types of risky driving behaviours for both licence groups. Learner and P1 drivers' engagement in risky behaviours was similar, however, the relative importance of self-regulated safety orientation elements to reduced engagement in these behaviours differed. Learners' engagement in intentional risky behaviours reflected greater perceived effort/importance and pressure/tension compared to P1 drivers. Greater effort/importance is an overarching indicator of internalised regulation concerning safe driving behaviours, which might be primed when first exposed to driving. However, greater perceived pressure/tension suggests that internalisation of self-regulatory processes is being suppressed during the Learner phase. This might stem from the required presence of driver trainers and supervisory drivers, as well as interactions with other road users. Whilst only tentative explanations in this first exploration, the findings suggest there is potential for greater efforts in Learner driver training and supervision to encompass the types of skills and learning that encourage the development of self-regulation to reduce risky driving behaviours during both the Learner and P1 stage. These findings contribute to the limited research regarding self-regulation by young novice drivers and informs a better understanding of the psychological influences of engagement in risky driving behaviours, including the first such examination among early independent licensed drivers.

Age-related differences in driving behaviors among non-professional drivers in Egypt

Purpose

This study aimed to investigate whether young and old non-professional drivers in South Egypt have aberrant driving behaviors compared with their middle-aged counterparts.

Materials and methods

In this cross-sectional study, a total of 1764 non-professional drivers aged ≥ 19 years, residing in Beni-Suef in South Egypt, and having ≥ one year of driving experience were randomly selected. All drivers were asked to fill out a self-administered questionnaire, including personal information, driving habits, and the Arabic version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire which evaluates driving violations, errors, and lapses.

Results

This study included 560 young drivers (19–25 years), 850 middle-aged drivers (26–59 years), and 354 old drivers (≥ 60 years). Compared with middle-aged drivers, young drivers reported more non-use of the seatbelt, eating while driving, and driving while feeling drowsy. Old drivers, in contrast, showed more careful driving behaviors including fewer violations, errors, and lapses and less likelihood of driving while feeling sleepy.

Conclusion

This study supports the conception that young drivers pose less careful driving habits. Initiating educational programs targeting young drivers to improve their driving habits and create a traffic safety culture in Egypt is highly warranted.

Turn signal use among motorcyclists and car drivers: The role of environmental characteristics, perceived risk, beliefs and lifestyle behaviours

Turn signal neglect is considered to be a key contributor to crashes at intersections, yet relatively little research has been undertaken on this topic, particularly in developing countries. Using a case study of Vietnam, this research aimed to explore the role of environmental characteristics, perceived risk, beliefs and lifestyle behaviours on the frequency of turn signal use at intersections. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to motorcyclists (n = 527) and car drivers (n = 326) using online and offline methods. Using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), key findings indicate that perceived risk, beliefs and environmental characteristics play a significant role in affecting the frequency of turn signal use among motorcycle riders and car drivers at intersections. While lifestyle behaviours were not found to be a good predictor of turn signal use among car drivers, they were found to indirectly affect turn signal use among motorcycle riders through the mediation of beliefs and perceived risk. The findings can help inform the development of more targeted measures to increase turn signal use.

An Assessment of Age and Gender Characteristics of Mixed Traffic with Autonomous and Manual Vehicles: A Cellular Automata Approach

Traffic congestion has become increasingly prevalent in many urban areas, and researchers are continuously looking into new ways to resolve this pertinent issue. Autonomous vehicles are one of the technologies expected to revolutionize transportation systems. To this very day, there are limited studies focused on the impact of autonomous vehicles in heterogeneous traffic flow in terms of different driving modes (manual and self-driving). Autonomous vehicles in the near future will be running parallel with manual vehicles, and drivers will have different characteristics and attributes. Previous studies that have focused on the impact of autonomous vehicles in these conditions are scarce. This paper proposes a new cellular automata model to address this issue, where different autonomous vehicles (cars and buses) and manual vehicles (cars and buses) are compared in terms of fundamental traffic parameters. Manual cars are further divided into subcategories on the basis of age groups and gender. Each category has its own distinct attributes, which make it different from the others. This is done in order to obtain a simulation as close as possible to a real-world scenario. Furthermore, different lane-changing behavior patterns have been modeled for autonomous and manual vehicles. Subsequently, different scenarios with different compositions are simulated to investigate the impact of autonomous vehicles on traffic flow in heterogeneous conditions. The results suggest that autonomous vehicles can raise the flow rate of any network considerably despite the running heterogeneous traffic flow.

The influence of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory on risk perception and intentions to speed in young male and female drivers

This study applied the revised-Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) to assess the influence of individual differences in young male and female drivers' risk perceptions and intentions to exceed the posted speed limit in a 60 km/hr zone. Relevant to the current study was the Behavioural Activation System (BAS; sensitive to reward), with a specific focus on the BAS processes: Reward Interest, Goal-Drive Persistence, Reward Reactivity and Impulsivity, and the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS; sensitive to punishment). It was hypothesised that young male and female drivers with stronger BAS traits would report lower risk perceptions towards speeding behaviour than those with weaker BAS traits and this risk perception would predict greater intentions to exceed the posted speed limit in 60 km/hr zones. It was further hypothesised that young male and female drivers with stronger FFFS traits would report higher risk perceptions towards speeding behaviour than those with weaker FFFS traits and this risk perception would predict lower intentions to exceed the posted speed limit in 60 km/h zones. Participants were 367 young licensed Australian drivers aged between 17 and 25 years. The results of a mediation analyses showed that females with stronger Impulsivity had low perceptions of risk and higher intentions to speed than participants with weaker Impulsivity. Further, males with stronger Goal-Drive Persistence and reported higher perceptions of risk and lower intentions to speed than participants with weaker Goal-Drive Persistence. Contrary to expectations, the BAS processes of Reward Interest and Reward Reactivity, and the FFFS were not significant. The findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of how the r-RST traits, specifically Goal-Drive Persistence and Impulsivity may influence speeding behaviour as well as the understanding of the unique influence of the four underlying BAS processes.

Understanding crash potential associated with teen driving: Survey analysis using multivariate graphical method

INTRODUCTION

Teen crash involvement is usually higher than other age groups, and they are typically overrepresented in car crashes. To infer teen drivers' understanding of crash potentials (factors that are associated with crash occurrence), two sources of data are generally used: retrospective data and prospective data. Retrospective data sources contain historical crash data, which have limitations in determining teen drivers' knowledge of crash potentials. Prospective data sources, like surveys, have more potential to minimize the research gap. Prior studies have shown that teen drivers are more likely to be involved in crashes during their early driving years. Thus, there is a benefit in examining how teen drivers' understanding of crash potentials change during their transition through licensing stages (i.e., no licensure to unrestricted licensure).

METHOD

This study used a large set of teen driver survey data (a dataset from approximately 88,000 respondents) of Texas teens to answer the research question. Researchers provided rankings of the crash potentials by gender and licensure stages using a multivariate graphical method named taxicab correspondence analysis (TCA).

RESULTS

The findings show that driving behavior and understanding of crash potentials differ among teens based upon various licensing stages. Practical applications: Findings from this study can help government authorities to refine policies of teen driver licensing and implement potential countermeasures for safety improvement.

Exploring perceptions among people who drive after cannabis use: Collision risk, comparative optimism and normative influence

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS

While the perceived risks of driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC) have been a focus of recent drug-driving research, relevant concepts from the social cognition literature have rarely been applied to inform understanding of DUIC. This study aims to expand knowledge of perceived collision risk and social influences associated with DUIC and driving after other substance use.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 participants of a remedial program for impaired drivers. Thematic analysis began with two independent coders. Early discussion of emergent themes resulted in the identification of applicable social cognition concepts, resulting in selective coding and interpretation.

RESULTS

Many participants identified DUIC as less risky than driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs. Mixed perceptions regarding the dangerousness of DUIC were expressed, with some participants denying increased collision risk except among novice cannabis users. Comparative optimism bias was also expressed by participants who perceived themselves as less likely than others to be involved in a collision when DUIC. In view of normative influence, friends were generally seen as more accepting of DUIC than family, and there were indications that the opinions of others who use cannabis were regarded as more credible than the opinions of those who do not use the drug.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Comparative optimism bias and normative influence may contribute to perceived risks associated with DUIC and may, therefore, be useful concepts to employ to increase the effectiveness of public health and road safety initiatives.

Young male drivers' perceptions of and experiences with YouTube videos of risky driving behaviours

OBJECTIVE

YouTube features millions of videos of high risk driving behaviours and negative consequences of high risk driving ("fails"), such as injuries or deaths. Unfortunately, no information is available on YouTube viewership of these types of sites or on the effects of these videos on viewers. The purpose of this study was to examine young male drivers' perceptions of and experiences with YouTube videos of risky driving behaviours.

METHODS

Using an exploratory qualitative descriptive approach, three 2-hour focus groups were conducted with young men 18-30 years of age to determine: (i) if they watch and share YouTube videos, including high risk driving videos; (ii) what effects high risk driving videos have on them and others and whether YouTube videos of negative consequences discourage high risk driving.

RESULTS

Participants indicated three uses for YouTube; it has replaced television watching and provides entertainment and information. Motivations of both risky drivers in videos and viewers to engage in high risk driving activities included person characteristics (e.g., sensation seeking and responsivity to financial rewards for high view count videos) and socio-environmental factors (e.g., peer pressure). Most indicated that they would not try to imitate the risky behaviours exhibited in videos, although a few had tried to copy some risky driving moves from videos.

CONCLUSIONS

Social, not mass media is now the common information and entertainment source for young people. YouTube videos of high risk driving are common and ubiquitous. Findings from these focus groups suggest that viewers could influence subsequent content of social media videos and reciprocally, videos could influence behaviours of some viewers, particularly young male viewers.

Driver prototypes and behavioral willingness: Young driver risk perception and reported engagement in risky driving

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to explore perceived risk and reported willingness to engage in risky driving in a sample of young Australian drivers. The study also considered the influence of gender, driving experience, and risky driver prototypes on willingness to engage in risky driving. Within this context, a prototype is a social image of the type of person who engages in specific risk behaviors. In the prototype willingness model (PWM), willingness accounts for motivations that do not directly rely on planning or goal formation.

METHODS

The PWM was applied to a sample of 554 drivers (aged 17-25 years) to explore how risky driver prototypes: similarity (extent of identification with the prototype), favorability (how positive is the image), and behavioral willingness, may influence their perceived risk and reported engagement in risky driving behaviors. Drivers holding an Australian driver's license (Provisional 1, Provisional 2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey measuring: 1) driver prototypes and behavioral willingness to engage in risky driving behaviors, 2) perceived risk of driving-related behaviors, and 3) the Behavior of Young Novice Drivers Scale transient and fixed violations subscales.

RESULTS

Path analysis explored relationships between prototypes and willingness variables, perceived risk, and reported driving engagement. Goodness-of-fit statistics supported the conceptual model. Behavioral willingness showed the strongest relationship with perceived risk (negative) and reported driving violation engagement (positive).

CONCLUSIONS

Risky driver prototypes and behavioral willingness, as well as driver's sex and driving experience, may help to explain individual differences in perceived risk, and young driver reported risky driving engagement.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Identifying relevant factors that could be amenable to change, such as driver prototype and willingness variables, may contribute to improved road safety initiatives, and provide information and support to counter factors that might otherwise facilitate young drivers' risk perceptions and risky driving engagement.

Young females' attention toward road safety images: An ERP study of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory

OBJECTIVE

This study examined whether reward and punishment sensitivities, as conceptualized by Gray and McNaughton's revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST), influenced young female drivers' attention toward a series of positive and negative antispeeding advertisement images. Young females' increasing crash risk is associated with their engagement in risky behaviors, which, in turn, has been associated with a stronger behavioral approach system (BAS; sensitive to rewards). It was predicted that individuals with a stronger BAS would elicit larger N100 and N200 mean amplitudes (reflecting greater attention) toward the positive images. Similar associations were predicted in relation to the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS; sensitive to punishments) for negative images.

METHOD

Twenty-four female drivers (17-25 years; final N = 16) completed Corr-Cooper's RST-Personality Questionnaire, prior to undergoing an event-related potential computerized visual task (i.e., oddball paradigm) that included positive, negative, and neutral images as targets against checkerboard image distractors.

RESULTS

Contrary to expectations, individuals with a stronger BAS (Reward Reactivity and Impulsivity) demonstrated significantly larger N200 mean amplitudes at the Cz electrode site on presentation of the negative images than those with a weaker BAS. No other significant RST effects were found.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide some preliminary objective support for the use of negative emotion-based road safety advertisements for young females. Further, this study provides support for using psychophysiological measures to enhance understanding of traffic injury persuasion.

The sex disparity in risky driving: A survey of Colombian young drivers

OBJECTIVE

The overrepresentation of young drivers in poor road safety outcomes has long been recognized as a global road safety issue. In addition, the overrepresentation of males in crash statistics has been recognized as a pervasive young driver problem. Though progress in road safety evidenced as a stabilization and/or reduction in poor road safety outcomes has been made in developed nations, less-developed nations contribute the greatest road safety trauma, and developing nations such as Colombia continue to experience increasing trends in fatality rates. The aim of the research was to explore sex differences in self-reported risky driving behaviors of young drivers, including the associations with crash involvement, in a sample of young drivers attending university in Colombia.

METHODS

The Spanish version of the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS-Sp) was applied in an online survey to a sample of 392 students (225 males) aged 16-24 years attending a major university. Appropriate comparative statistics and logistic regression modeling were used when analyzing the data.

RESULTS

Males reported consistently more risky driving behaviors, with approximately one quarter of all participants reporting risky driving exposure. Males reported greater crash involvement, with violations such as speeding associated with crash involvement for both males and females.

CONCLUSION

Young drivers in Colombia appear to engage in the same risky driving behaviors as young drivers in developed nations. In addition, young male drivers in Colombia reported greater engagement in risky driving behaviors than young female drivers, a finding consistent with the behaviors of young male drivers in developed nations. As such, the research findings suggest that general interventions such as education, engineering, and enforcement should target transient rule violations such as speeding and using a handheld mobile phone while driving for young drivers in Colombia. Future research should investigate how these interventions could be tailored specifically for the Colombian cultural context, including how their effects can be evaluated, prior to implementation.

Risk and safety perception on urban and rural roads: Effects of environmental features, driver age and risk sensitivity

OBJECTIVE

The ability to detect changing visual information is a vital component of safe driving. In addition to detecting changing visual information, drivers must also interpret its relevance to safety. Environmental changes considered to have high safety relevance will likely demand greater attention and more timely responses than those considered to have lower safety relevance. The aim of this study was to explore factors that are likely to influence perceptions of risk and safety regarding changing visual information in the driving environment. Factors explored were the environment in which the change occurs (i.e., urban vs. rural), the type of object that changes, and the driver's age, experience, and risk sensitivity.

METHODS

Sixty-three licensed drivers aged 18-70 years completed a hazard rating task, which required them to rate the perceived hazardousness of changing specific elements within urban and rural driving environments. Three attributes of potential hazards were systematically manipulated: the environment (urban, rural); the type of object changed (road sign, car, motorcycle, pedestrian, traffic light, animal, tree); and its inherent safety risk (low risk, high risk). Inherent safety risk was manipulated by either varying the object's placement, on/near or away from the road, or altering an infrastructure element that would require a change to driver behavior. Participants also completed two driving-related risk perception tasks, rating their relative crash risk and perceived risk of aberrant driving behaviors.

RESULTS

Driver age was not significantly associated with hazard ratings, but individual differences in perceived risk of aberrant driving behaviors predicted hazard ratings, suggesting that general driving-related risk sensitivity plays a strong role in safety perception. In both urban and rural scenes, there were significant associations between hazard ratings and inherent safety risk, with low-risk changes perceived as consistently less hazardous than high-risk impact changes; however, the effect was larger for urban environments. There were also effects of object type, with certain objects rated as consistently more safety relevant. In urban scenes, changes involving pedestrians were rated significantly more hazardous than all other objects, and in rural scenes, changes involving animals were rated as significantly more hazardous. Notably, hazard ratings were found to be higher in urban compared with rural driving environments, even when changes were matched between environments.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that drivers perceive rural roads as less risky than urban roads, even when similar scenarios occur in both environments. Age did not affect hazard ratings. Instead, the findings suggest that the assessment of risk posed by hazards is influenced more by individual differences in risk sensitivity. This highlights the need for driver education to account for appraisal of hazards' risk and relevance, in addition to hazard detection, when considering factors that promote road safety.

A Fuzzy DEMATEL Analysis of Cultural Variables in Traffic Rules Violation

Traffic rules violation stems from numerous causes such as the lack of appropriate traffic rules training, non-institutionalization of respect to the rights of others especially pedestrians, and more importantly self-preference. There is a need for accidents prevention and deeper analysis of the multi-attributes which lead to unwanted accidents and lethal crashes resulting in death. Most of these elements are cultural variables. In this study, the cultural variables affecting traffic rules violation are investigated. From among many cultural variables, 6 most important factors were examined. For this aim, 10 traffic officers who have more than 10 years' experience and 10 citizens with master's degree and at least 6 years driving experience, participated in this research. For determining the cause and effect relations between them, fuzzy DEMATEL is applied. Findings show that unawareness of traffic rules has the greatest importance because it is the premier causal factor from one hand and on the other hand, it has the maximum relation with the other cultural variables.

Adolescent and adult drivers' mobile phone use while driving with different interlocutors

PURPOSE

We examined the frequency of adolescents' and their parents' mobile phone use while driving (MPUWD) in the context of their peer and parent-child interlocutors (i.e., communication partners), considering individual differences in perceived risk and symptoms of technology addiction.

METHODS

Ninety-four participants (47 parent-adolescent dyads) completed a survey battery measuring their symptoms of technology addiction, perceived risk of MPUWD, and MPUWD with family members and with their peers as assessed via the proportion of trips when drivers used a mobile phone to communicate.

RESULTS

For both adolescents and their parents across both types of interlocutors (parent-child, peer), stronger risk perceptions were associated with less MPUWD, and stronger symptoms of technology addiction were associated with more MPUWD. A three-way interaction among technology addiction, interlocutor (parent-child, peer), and driver (parent, adolescent) was observed. For adolescents, the association between technology addiction and MPUWD was significantly stronger for MPUWD with their peers than it was for their MPUWD with their parents; this association was not observed for parents. Parents engaged in MPUWD with their children as frequently as adolescents engaged in MPUWD with their peers.

CONCLUSIONS

Symptoms of technology addiction play a stronger role for adolescents' MPUWD with their peers than it does for adolescents' MPUWD with their parents. These and other driver-by-interlocutor interactions should be considered in future research on distracted driving and in prevention efforts.

Personality of young drivers in Oman: Relationship to risky driving behaviors and crash involvement among Sultan Qaboos University students

OBJECTIVE

Drivers' behaviors such as violations and errors have been demonstrated to predict crash involvement among young Omani drivers. However, there is a dearth of studies linking risky driving behaviors to the personality of young drivers. The aim of the present study was to assess such traits within a sample of young Omani drivers (as measured through the behavioral inhibition system [BIS] and the behavioral activation system [BAS]) and determine links with aberrant driving behaviors and self-reported crash involvement.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted at the Sultan Qaboos University that targeted all licensed Omani's undergraduate students. A total of 529 randomly selected students completed the self-reported questionnaire that included an assessment of driving behaviors (e.g., Driver Behaviour Questionnaire, DBQ) as well as the BIS/BAS measures.

RESULTS

A total of 237 participants (44.8%) reported involvement in at least one crash since being licensed. Young drivers with lower BIS-Anxiety scores and higher BAS-Fun Seeking tendencies as well as male drivers were more likely to report driving violations. Statistically significant gender differences were observed on all BIS and BAS subscales (except for BAS-Fun) and the DBQ subscales, because males reported higher trait scores. Though personality traits were related to aberrant driving behaviors at the bivariate level, the constructs were not predictive of engaging in violations or errors. Furthermore, consistent with previous research, a supplementary multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that only driving experience was predictive of crash involvement.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight that though personality traits influence self-reported driving styles (and differ between the genders), the relationship with crash involvement is not as clear. This article further outlines the key findings of the study in regards to understanding core psychological constructs that increase crash risk.

The role of personality traits and driving experience in self-reported risky driving behaviors and accident risk among Chinese drivers

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of personality traits and driving experience in the prediction of risky driving behaviors and accident risk among Chinese population. A convenience sample of drivers (n=511; mean (SD) age=34.2 (8.8) years) completed a self-report questionnaire that was designed based on validated scales for measuring personality traits, risky driving behaviors and self-reported accident risk. Results from structural equation modeling analysis demonstrated that the data fit well with our theoretical model. While showing no direct effects on accident risk, personality traits had direct effects on risky driving behaviors, and yielded indirect effects on accident risk mediated by risky driving behaviors. Both driving experience and risky driving behaviors directly predicted accident risk and accounted for 15% of its variance. There was little gender difference in personality traits, risky driving behaviors and accident risk. The findings emphasized the importance of personality traits and driving experience in the understanding of risky driving behaviors and accident risk among Chinese drivers and provided new insight into the design of evidence-based driving education and accident prevention interventions.

Judged effectiveness of threat and coping appraisal anti-speeding messages

PURPOSE

Using a young driver sample, this experimental study sought to identify which combinations of threat-appraisal (TA) and coping-appraisal (CA) messages derived from protection motivation theory (PMT) participants would judge as most effective for themselves, and for other drivers.

METHOD

The criterion variable was reported intention to drive within a signed speed limit. All possible TA/CA combinations of 18 previously highly-rated anti-speeding messages were presented both simultaneously and sequentially. These represented PMT's three TA components: severity, vulnerability, and rewards, and three CA components: self-efficacy, response efficacy, and response costs. Eighty-eight young drivers (34 males) each rated 54 messages for perceived effectiveness for self and other drivers.

RESULTS

Messages derived from the TA severity component were judged the most effective. Response cost messages were most effective for females. Reverse third-person effects were found for both females and males, which suggested that combining TA and CA components may increase the perceived relevance of anti-speeding messages for males.

DISCUSSION

The findings have potential value for creating effective roadside anti-speeding messages, meriting further investigation in field studies.

Racing with friends: Resistance to peer influence, gist and specific risk beliefs

PURPOSE

Studies assessing young drivers' risk appraisals with their driving behavior have shown both positive and inverse associations, possibly due to differences in survey items that cue gist appraisals about risk (i.e., beliefs that are focused on meaning) or specific appraisals (i.e., beliefs that are focused on discrete instances). Prior research has indicated that gist-based reasoning is protective against engaging in risk behavior and that use of gist appraisals increases with development. Additionally, although much of adolescents' risk-taking occurs in groups, almost no research examines how adolescents' resistance to peer influence may relate to their specific and gist beliefs about socially-bound risk behavior, as well as their future engagement in such behavior.

METHODS

One hundred and thirty-two adolescent drivers participated in a prospective self-report study on racing behavior. Surveys measured specific and gist risk appraisals, resistance to peer influence, and racing behavior at two time points three months apart. We hypothesized that stronger specific appraisals would be associated with greater likelihood of racing, and stronger gist appraisals would be protective. Further, we hypothesized that resistance to peer influence would be positively associated with gist appraisals and negatively associated with specific risk appraisals; and would also be inversely associate with racing.

RESULTS

Specific risk appraisals and gist appraisals were predictive of racing behavior as hypothesized. Resistance to peer influence did not predict racing, but was associated with each type of risk appraisal as predicted at Time 1, although the association between specific risk and resistance to peer influence was non-significant at the second time point.

CONCLUSIONS

Gist beliefs and the ability to resist influence from friends might be indicative of an underlying strength of one's own beliefs about the self as a non-risk taking person who stands up for his or her beliefs, which is protective against engaging in risky behavior, such as racing with friends.

The influence of the elements of procedural justice and speed camera enforcement on young novice driver self-reported speeding

Road policing is an important tool used to modify road user behaviour. While other theories, such as deterrence theory, are significant in road policing, there may be a role for using procedural justice as a framework to improve outcomes in common police citizen interactions such as traffic law enforcement. This study, using a sample of 237 young novice drivers, considered how the four elements of procedural justice (voice, neutrality, respect and trustworthiness) were perceived in relation to two forms of speed enforcement: point-to-point (or average) speed and mobile speed cameras. Only neutrality was related to both speed camera types suggesting that it may be possible to influence behaviour by emphasising one or more elements, rather than using all components of procedural justice. This study is important as it indicates that including at least some elements of procedural justice in more automated policing encounters can encourage citizen compliance.

High-risk driving attitudes and everyday driving violations of car and racing enthusiasts in Ontario, Canada

OBJECTIVE

Attitudes and individual difference variables of car and racing enthusiasts regarding high-risk behaviors of street racing and stunt driving have recently been investigated. Positive attitudes toward high-risk driving, personality variables such as driver thrill seeking, and other self-reported risky driving acts were associated with these behaviors. However, probable relationships among high-risk driving tendencies, everyday driving behaviors, and negative road safety outcomes have remained largely unexamined. This study aimed to investigate the associations among car and racing enthusiasts' high-risk driving attitudes, self-reported everyday driving violations (i.e., ordinary and aggressive violations), and self-reported negative outcomes (i.e., collisions and driving offense citations).

METHOD

A web-based survey was conducted with members and visitors of car club and racing websites in Ontario, Canada. Data were obtained from 366 participants. The questionnaire included 4 attitude measures-(1) attitudes toward new penalties for Ontario's Street Racers, Stunt and Aggressive Drivers Legislation; (2) attitudes toward new offenses of stunt driving under the same legislation; (3) general attitudes toward street racing and stunt driving; (4) comparison of street racing with other risky driving behaviors-self-reported driving violations (i.e., ordinary and aggressive violations); self-reported collisions and offense citations; and background and driving questions (e.g., age, driving frequency).

RESULTS

Results revealed that attitudes toward stunt driving offenses negatively and general attitudes toward street racing and stunt driving positively predicted ordinary violations, which, in turn, predicted offense citations. Moreover, general attitudes toward street racing and stunt driving positively predicted aggressive violations, which, in turn, predicted offense citations.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicate that positive high-risk driving attitudes may be transferring to driving violations in everyday traffic, which mediates driving offense citations.

Factors Contributing to Crashes among Young Drivers

Young drivers are the group of drivers most likely to crash. There are a number of factors that contribute to the high crash risk experienced by these drivers. While some of these factors are intrinsic to the young driver, such as their age, gender or driving skill, others relate to social factors and when and how often they drive. This article reviews the factors that affect the risk of young drivers crashing to enable a fuller understanding of why this risk is so high in order to assist in developing effective countermeasures.