Preparation and mass spectrometry of 14 pure and 18O2-labeled oxidation products from the phytosterols β-sitosterol and stigmasterol

Comprehensive metabolomics analysis based on UPLC-Q/TOF-MSE and the anti-COPD effect of different parts of Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb

The root, stem and leaf of Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. (COT) have all been used as Chinese folk medicine. Aiming at revealing the secondary metabolites and screening the anti-COPD effect of COT, the comprehensive phytochemical and bioassay studies were performed. Based on the ultra-high performance liquid chromatography combined with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MSE), the screening analysis of components in COT was conducted with the UNIFI platform, the metabolomics of the three parts were analyzed with multivariate statistical analysis. Cigarette smoke extract (CSE)-stimulated inflammatory model in A549 cells was used to investigate the biological effect of the three parts. A total of 120 compounds were identified or tentatively characterized from COT. Metabolomics analysis showed that the three parts of COT were differentiated, and there were 13, 8 and 5 potential chemical markers discovered from root, stem and leaf, respectively. Five robust chemical markers with high responses could be used for further quality control in different parts of COT. The root, stem and leaf of COT could evidently reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory factors in a dose-dependent way within a certain concentration range. The stem part had a stronger anti-COPD effect than root and leaf parts. This study clarified the structural diversity of secondary metabolites and the various patterns in different parts of COT, and provided a theoretical basis for further utilization and development of COT.

Novel synthesis strategy for the preparation of individual phytosterol oxides

Sterols (cholesterol and phytosterols) are important structural components of cell membranes and major constituents of lipid metabolism. Research on their oxides, such as the factors affecting oxidation, oxides' structures, and qualitative and quantitative analysis, aroused more attention in this decade. However, the biological roles of individual phytosterol oxides are still unclear because no commercial individual phytosterol oxide standards are available. Different from the traditional chemical synthesis, in the present study, chemical synthesis from a starting phytosterol mixture followed with a semipreparative HPLC separation produced individual oxides. TLC and analytical HPLC were used here to not only monitor the reaction process but also specifically analyze the synthetic intermediates and oxides. The chromatographic results exhibited strict rules and similar characteristics. Finally, for the first time, four individual phytosterol oxides were successfully separated and collected by a semipreparative HPLC system, thus providing a novel strategy for the preparation of individual phytosterol oxides.

Phytosterols reduce cholesterol absorption by inhibition of 27-hydroxycholesterol generation, liver X receptor α activation, and expression of the basolateral sterol exporter ATP-binding cassette A1 in Caco-2 enterocytes

Phytosterol-enriched foods are increasingly marketed to lower cholesterol levels and atherosclerosis in the general population. Phytosterols reduce cholesterol absorption, but the molecular mechanism is controversial. We therefore investigated the phytosterol effects on cholesterol metabolism in human enterocyte, hepatocyte, and macrophage models relevant for sterol absorption, reverse transport, and excretion. Isomolar sitosterol (50 μmol/L) was less effectively taken up by enterocytes than cholesterol but suppressed apical cholesterol uptake by 50% (P < 0.01) and basolateral secretion by two-thirds (P < 0.01) whether added in micelles or ethanol or complexed to cyclodextrin. In contrast, enterocytes handled nanomolar (3)H-sitosterol similarly to cholesterol. Enterocytes selectively oxidized all sterols to 27-hydroxy- and 27-carboxy-sterols. Conversion rates were much lower for sitosterol (0.05 ± 0.02 nmol/mg protein) and campesterol (0.48 ± 0.10) compared with cholesterol (3.73 ± 0.60) (P < 0.001). 27-Hydroxycholesterol (27OH-C) activated liver-X-receptor alpha (LXRα) (P < 0.01) and stimulated ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) A1 expression (P < 0.001) and basolateral systemic cholesterol secretion from enterocytes (P < 0.05). In co-incubations, phytosterols inhibited 27OH-C generation by sterol 27-hydroxylase (P < 0.001) and reduced LXRα-mediated ABCA1 expression (P < 0.01) and basolateral systemic cholesterol secretion. In contrast, ABCG8 transcription and apical sterol resecretion was unchanged by LXRα activation in human enterocytes. Exogenous LXRα agonists reverted sterol selectivity and phytosterol cholesterol interaction. Due to constitutive apical expression of ABCG5/G8 and LXRα-enhanced basolateral expression of ABCA1 in enterocytes, interference of phytosterols with the generation of the dominating LXRα-agonist 27OH-C blocks the self-priming component of cholesterol absorption. This local LXRα antagonism of dietary phytosterols contributes to sterol selectivity and reduces fractional cholesterol absorption and preloading of nascent HDL with dietary cholesterol.

Oxidation products of stigmasterol interfere with the action of the female sex hormone 17β-estradiol in cultured human breast and endometrium cell lines

Phytosterols are constituents of plant membranes and are thus contained in low concentrations in vegetable products as well as at high concentrations in functional food designed to reduce serum cholesterol levels. Similar to ChOL, phytosterols are oxidized chemically in food and by biotransformation in vivo. Although oxyphytosterols have been detected in the serum of healthy human subjects, little is known of their biological activity. Therefore, the estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities of a mixture of six oxidation products of stigmasterol (oxy-StOL) were determined at the following endpoints: (i) the affinity to isolated human estrogen receptors (ER), (ii) the basal and 17beta-estradiol (E2)-induced expression of the alkaline phosphatase (AlP) in human endometrial adenocarcinoma (Ishikawa) cells, and (iii) the basal and E2-induced proliferation of human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cells. Oxy-StOL was able to replace E2 from human ERalpha and ERbeta and induced a weak estrogenic response in MCF-7 cells. Moreover, the E2-induced activity of the AlP in Ishikawa cells as well as the E2-induced proliferation of MCF-7 cells were decreased at noncytotoxic concentrations (up to 10 microM), indicating that at least one component of oxy-StOL represents an estrogen-active compound which might interfere with endogenous estrogens.

Levels of phytosterol oxides in enriched and nonenriched spreads: application of a thin-layer chromatography-gas chromatography methodology

The content of phytosterol oxidation products (POPs) in enriched and nonenriched commercial spreads was evaluated by thin-layer chromatography-gas chromatography (TLC-GC). Oxides of beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol were produced by thermo-oxidation (7-hydroxy, 7-keto, and epoxy derivatives) and chemical synthesis (triol derivatives), which were then separated and identified by TLC-GC. Their identification was further confirmed by GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The total amounts of phytosterols found were 6.07 and 0.33 g/100 g of sample in phytosterol-enriched and nonenriched spread, respectively, whereas the total POPs contents were 45.60 and 13.31 mg/kg of sample in the enriched and nonenriched products. The main POPs found were the 7-keto derivatives of all phytosterols analyzed; 7-ketositosterol was the most abundant one (14.96 and 5.93 mg/kg of sample in phytosterol-enriched and nonenriched spread). No beta-epoxy and triol derivatives were detected in both types of samples. The enriched spread presented a lower phytosterol oxidation rate (0.07%) than the nonenriched one (0.41%).

Synthesis, isolation and characterisation of β-sitosterol and β-sitosterol oxide derivatives

Beta-sitosterol is the most prevalent plant cholesterol derivative (phytosterol) and can undergo similar oxidation to cholesterol, leading to beta-sitosterol oxides. The biological impact of phytosterol oxides has only been evaluated in a phytosterol blend (usually of beta-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol and dihydrobrassicasterol). The lack of pure phytosterols, including beta-sitosterol, hinders the collection of significant toxicity data on the individual beta-sitosterol oxides. An efficient synthetic route to multi-gram quantities of pure beta-sitosterol is described here, together with the first syntheses and characterisation of pure beta-sitosterol oxides.

Gas chromatographic properties of common cholesterol and phytosterol oxidation products

The most common cholesterol and phytosterol oxidation products found in foodstuffs or biological matrices are the 7alpha- and 7beta-hydroxysterol, 7-ketosterol, 5alpha,6alpha- and 5beta,6beta-epoxysterol, and triol derivatives of sterols. This study focused on the preparation and purification of such products derived from campesterol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol. The identity of the substances was confirmed by mass spectroscopic analysis. The elution order of a complex mixture composed of the 7alpha- and 7beta-hydroxysterol, 7-ketosterol, 5alpha,6alpha- and 5beta,6beta-epoxysterol, and triol derivatives of cholesterol, campesterol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol was recorded on an apolar as well as a medium-polarity capillary column in relation to two commonly used internal standards, i.e. alpha-cholestane and 19-hydroxy cholesterol. Flame-ionization detector as well as mass spectrometry response factors were derived from a gravimetrically prepared mixture of commercially available cholesterol oxide standards. It was proven that the ionization efficiency of cholesterol and phytosterol oxides are very similar and that response factors obtained for cholesterol oxidation products are also valid for quantitative work regarding phytosterol oxidation products.