A review of oxyhalide disinfection by-products determination in water by ion chromatography and ion chromatography-mass spectrometry

Traditional methods and biosensors for detecting disinfection by-products in water: A review

In recent years, pollution caused by disinfection by-products (DBPs) has become a global concern. Initially, there were fewer contaminants, and the mechanism of their generation was unclear; however, the number of contaminants has increased exponentially as a result of rapid industrialization and numerous economic activities (e.q., during the outbreak of COVID-19 a surge in the use of chlorinated disinfectants was observed). DBP toxicity results in various adverse health effects and organ failure in humans. In addition, it profoundly affects other forms of life, including animals, plants, and microorganisms. This review comprehensively discusses the pre-treatment methods of traditional and emerging DBPs and the technologies applied for their detection. Additionally, this paper provides a detailed discussion of the principles, applicability, and characteristics of traditional large-scale instrumentation methods (such as gas/liquid/ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry) for detecting DBPs based on their respective detection techniques. At the same time, the design, functionality, classification, and characteristics of rapid detection technologies (such as biosensors) are also detailed and analyzed.

Quantification of Chlorate and Perchlorate in a Broad Range of Food Commodities, Including Baby Food, Nutritional Formulas, and Ingredients by LC-MS/MS: First Action AOAC 2022.06

BACKGROUND

Chlorate is an effective herbicide, but also a byproduct of chlorinating agents used to disinfect water, which is one of the reasons why it is regularly found in food. Perchlorate is a ubiquitous contaminant, which is naturally occurring in the environment but also released from anthropogenic sources such as the industrial use of certain natural fertilizers. Chlorate affects the hematological system, and perchlorate the thyroid.

OBJECTIVE

Implement and validate a simple and robust analytical method for the accurate determination of chlorate and perchlorate in baby food, infant and adult formulas, and ingredients thereof, which is suited for its application in routine environments where a broad variety of food commodities must be analyzed simultaneously.

METHOD

Typically, analytes are extracted with a mixture of water, acidified methanol, and dichloromethane. Optionally, for dairy products and byproducts, extraction can be performed with water, acidified methanol, and EDTA, followed by two steps of cleanup (freezing out and dispersive solid-phase extraction with C18 in acetonitrile). Quantitative determination is carried out by isotopic dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

The method was single-laboratory validated in five Nestlé Quality Assurance Centers (NQACs) in a comprehensive range of representative matrixes of different categories such as baby foods, infant/adult formulas, and ingredients, with results generally in agreement with the acceptance criteria of the Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR®) 2021.001 defined by AOAC INTERNATIONAL, in terms of representative matrixes validated, LOQs, trueness, and precision.The data generated during validation show that the method proposed is simple, accurate and robust enough to be implemented and applied in routine environments.

CONCLUSION

The data generated during validation show that the method proposed is simple, accurate and robust enough to be implemented and applied in routine environments.

HIGHLIGHTS

The AOAC Expert Review Panel approved the present method as AOAC Official First Action 2022.06.

Trace determination of disinfection by-products in drinking water by cyclic ion chromatography with large-volume direct injection

A novel cyclic ion chromatography (IC) system was developed for the simultaneous determination of trace disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water. Five DBPs (chlorite, bromate, chlorate, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid) were sensitively determined by large-volume direct injection, and the interferences of dominant inorganic anions present in water were eliminated online through the cyclic determination of the target analytes. Under optimized conditions, the obtained limits of detection (LODs) were in the range of 0.18-1.91 μg L^-1 based on a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of 3 and an injection volume of 1.0 mL. The RSDs for peak area and retention time were in the range of 0.13-1.03% and 1.24-4.29%, respectively. Satisfactory recoveries between 92.3% and 106.4% were obtained by adding three concentration gradients of standards to the drinking water samples. The proposed method has advantages such as high sensitivity, facile automation, and no sample pretreatment, and might be a promising approach for routine analysis.

Analysis of environmental pollutants using ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry: A review

The rise of emerging pollutants in the current environment and requirements of trace analysis in complex substrates pose challenges to modern analytical techniques. Ion chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (IC-MS) is the preferred tool for analyzing emerging pollutants due to its excellent separation ability for polar and ionic compounds with small molecular weight and high detection sensitivity and selectivity. This paper reviews the progress of sample preparation and ion-exchange IC-MS methods in the analysis of several major categories of environmental polar and ionic pollutants including perchlorate, inorganic and organic phosphorus compounds, metalloids and heavy metals, polar pesticides, and disinfection by-products in past two decades. The comparison of various methods to reduce the influence of matrix effect and improve the accuracy and sensitivity of analysis are emphasized throughout the process from sample preparation to instrumental analysis. Furthermore, the human health risks of these pollutants in the environment with natural concentration levels in different environmental medias are also briefly discussed to raise public attention. Finally, the future challenges of IC-MS for analysis of environmental pollutants are briefly discussed.

Prevalence and Trends of Drinking Water Disinfection Byproducts-Related Cancers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) from chlorinated drinking water have been linked to an increased risk of cancer in the bladder, stomach, colon, and rectum. No studies showed the independent trends and prevalence of these cancers in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence and trends of disinfection byproducts-related cancers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

METHODS

Data were collected from the Addis Ababa Cancer Registry. Spatial data sets were produced and classified into households receiving chlorinated surface water and less chlorinated groundwater. The Cochran-Armitage trend test was used to evaluate whether there was a disinfection byproducts-related cancers (DBRCs) trend among communities receiving chlorinated water. Negative binomial regression was used to analyze the incidence rate.

RESULTS

A total of 11, 438 cancer cases were registered between 2012 and 2016, and DBRCs accounted for approximately 17%. The majority of the total cancer cases were female; 7,706 (67%). The prevalence of DBRCs was found to be higher in communities supplied with chlorinated water. From 2012 to 2016, the trend of colon cancer increased (β = 10.3, P value = .034); however, esophageal cancer decreased (β = -6.5, P value = .018). Approximately 56% of colorectal cancer patients and 53% of stomach cancer patients are known to be using chlorinated surface water for drinking regularly. In addition, approximately 57.1% and 54% of kidney and bladder cancer patients, respectively, used chlorinated surface water.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of DBRCs in this study was found to be high. The colon cancer trend increased substantially from 2012 to 2016. The prevalence of DBRCs was higher in communities supplied with chlorinated surface water. Similarly, the prevalence of DBRCs was higher among males than females. Further study is required to validate the association between DBRCs and water chlorination.

Anion Exchange Chromatography Coupled to Electrospray-Mass Spectrometry: An Efficient Tool for Food, Environment, and Biological Analysis

For over 50 years, ion chromatography has been demonstrated to be a successful technique used to quantify a wide range of ions and ionizable compounds, either organic or inorganic, in various matrices using conductimetric or electrochemical detection. It was only since 1996 that ion chromatography was coupled to electrospray-mass spectrometry, opening the field to new applications in complex matrices and the detection of compounds at trace levels. This review covers the recent developments of ion exchange chromatography and mass spectrometry. It focuses on the choice of mobile phases, column geometry, suppressors, make-up solvents and type of ionization sources reported in the literature. A brief overview of a large range of applications in food analysis, environmental analysis and bioanalysis is presented, and performances are discussed.

Hazardous inorganic disinfection by-products in Egypt's tap drinking water: Occurrence and human health risks assessment studies

This study is the first that monitored the presence and levels of chlorite, chlorate and bromate in tap drinking water of Egypt. Three hundred and eight samples were collected from 22 governorates across Egypt and were analyzed using a standardized ion chromatography method. Forty-seven samples were contaminated by one or more of the inorganic disinfection by-products (DBPs) and only 12 samples exceeded the admissible maximum contamination levels (MCLs). The ratio of samples detected, and exceeding the MCLs were low relative to the global literature. Chlorate was the most prevalent inorganic DBPs (40 samples; concentration <12-4082 μg/L) followed by bromate (12 samples; concentration <3-626 μg/L) then chlorite (5 samples; concentration <12-123 μg/L). Chlorite was always below the MCL and had no human health risk even for the worst-case scenario. Bromate is a real challenge as it poses a significant cancer risk even for the median concentrations. None of the inorganic DBPs was detected in the tap drinking water of Beheira, Cairo, Gharbia, Giza, Kafr El Sheikh, Luxor, Monufia, and Suez governorates. This study manifested the importance of routine monitoring, and implementing counter measures to control the levels of the hazardous inorganic DBPs in tap drinking water.

Miniaturized analytical methods for determination of environmental contaminants of emerging concern - A review

The determination of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in environmental samples has become a challenging and critical issue. The present work focuses on miniaturized analytical strategies reported in the literature for the determination of CECs. The first part of the review provides brief overview of CECs whose monitoring in environmental samples is of particular significance, namely personal care products, pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, UV-filters, newly registered pesticides, illicit drugs, disinfection by-products, surfactants, high technology rare earth elements, and engineered nanomaterials. Besides, an overview of downsized sample preparation approaches reported in the literature for the determination of CECs in environmental samples is provided. Particularly, analytical methodologies involving microextraction approaches used for the enrichment of CECs are discussed. Both solid phase- and liquid phase-based microextraction techniques are highlighted devoting special attention to recently reported approaches. Special emphasis is placed on newly developed materials used for extraction purposes in microextraction techniques. In addition, recent contributions involving miniaturized analytical flow techniques for the determination of CECs are discussed. Besides, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of point of need and portable devices have been identified and critically compared with chromatographic methods coupled to mass chromatography. Finally, challenging aspects regarding miniaturized analytical methods for determination of CECs are critically discussed.

Bottled water safety evaluations in IRAN: determination of bromide and oxyhalides (chlorite, chlorate, bromate) by ion chromatography

Bottled water is most well liked within the world and attention is drawn due to its health issues. Oxyhalides is one amongst the foremost important by-products in bottled water which is produced by disinfection process such as "ozonation". International standards have been set and justified to permissible levels for chlorate, chlorite and bromate as 700, 700 and 10 μg/l. Thereafter, 168 samples of bottled water (mineral and drinking water) from Iran market obtained with the optimal working conditions and analyzed by ion chromatography (IC) with conductivity detector. The results actuated that 23 and 17 out of 168 samples as mineral and drinking water revealed bromate content in charge of the national permissible level, found as the mean level of 37.04 and 33.58 μg/l, respectively. According to risk assessment results, the average of hazard quotient (HQ) and lifetime excess cancer (ELCR) were calculated 6.955 × 10^-3 and 0.25 × 10^-3, respectively. Thereupon, it is indispensable to control as well as make consumers aware of oxyholides hazard especially bromate following governmental authorities with an insight to health sectors monitoring guidelines due to its obvious harmful effects and aspects on health issues.

Ion Chromatography and Related Techniques in Carboxylic Acids Analysis

Ion chromatography (IC) is a variant of high-performance liquid chromatography. Its most important applications include the determination of inorganic and some organic ions in different types of liquid samples. The development of new types of stationary phases with various separation mechanisms, sample preparation methods, and detection modes has extended ion chromatography applications to practically all ionic and ionogenic substances, as well as extending sample types to include gaseous and solid matrices. Carboxylic acids and their derivatives are examples of compounds that are becoming more frequently analyzed using ion chromatography and related techniques. Their occurrence in the environment can be natural or anthropogenic in origin and are broadly used in various industries and daily life. This article discusses the applications of ion chromatography and related techniques for the determination of carboxylic acids in different types of liquid, solid, and gaseous matrices. It also presents detailed methodologies and literature data on this subject from the last 15 years.

Determination of Bromide and Bromate Ions in the Presence of Standard Ions by Suppressed Ion Chromatography

An ion chromatographic method for determination of bromide and bromate in the presence of standard anions in drinking water was described. The method was based on separation on Metrosep A Supp 7-250 (250 x 4 mm) column with 3.6 mmol/L Na2CO3 as eluent and conductivity detection after sequential chemical and carbon dioxide suppression. The influence of flow rate and column temperature was studied and optimal experimental conditions for simultaneous determination of eight anions were chosen. Analytical characteristics of the ion chromatographic method were assessed for simultaneous determination of bromide, bromate, fluoride, chloride, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate and sulfate. The calibration curves were linear (r2=1, N=7) in the concentration ranges: 0.4-12 mg/L BrO3- and 0.3-11 mg/L Br-. Recovery test was performed on a spiked certified reference material for soft drinking water. The obtained recoveries for bromate and bromide were 96.0 and 101.0 %, respectively. The repeatability and intermediate precision were between 5.1 and 0.14 % (RSD) depending on the analytes concentration. The limits of detection were 20 μg/L BrO3- and 10 μg/L Br-

Determination of chlorate, perchlorate and bromate anions in water samples by microbore reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled to sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Sonic-spray ionization mass spectrometry (SSI-MS) has recently been shown to provide similar mass spectra to those generated by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for a wide range of compounds, i.e. from small inorganic species to peptides, proteins and numerous other biomolecules. However, limited information about this new ionization technique, such as sensitivity, limit of detection and quantification accuracy, has been reported. In particular, its coupling to liquid chromatography needs further development and assessment, along with the introduction of a broad range of applications.

METHODS

A high-efficiency glass pneumatic nebulizer, used for decades for sample introduction in atomic spectrometry, was used for the SSI-MS analysis of chlorate (ClO₃^- ), perchlorate (ClO₄^- ) and bromate (BrO₃^- ) anions, following their separation using reversed-phase microbore high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) operated in selected reaction monitoring mode.

RESULTS

The developed and optimized microbore HPLC/SSI-MS/MS technique exhibited low limits of detection: 5.3 ng L^-1 for chlorate, 10 ng L^-1 for perchlorate and 33.7 ng L^-1 for bromate, and provided reliable and accurate measurements of chlorate concentrations in water samples as demonstrated when comparing it with Ion Chromatography-Conductivity Detection (IC-CD), the benchmark technique for ion quantitation.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first time that the use of HPLC/SSI-MS/MS has been reported for the detection and quantitation of chlorate, perchlorate and bromate in water samples. In addition, the exceptionally low LODs achieved using SSI render the technique competitive with the established and dominating electrospray ionization technique. Here, we have demonstrated that a commercially available high-efficiency glass pneumatic nebulizer can also be used, without any further modification, as an efficient gas-phase ion source. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.