A novel smartphone-based CD-spectrometer for high sensitive and cost-effective colorimetric detection of ascorbic acid

High-efficient nickel-doped lignin carbon dots as a fluorescent and smartphone-assisted sensing platform for sequential detection of Cr(VI) and ascorbic acid

Using lignin as a raw material to prepare fluorescent nanomaterials represents a significant pathway toward the high-value utilization of waste biomass. In this study, Ni-doped lignin carbon dots (Ni-LCDs) were rapidly synthesized with a yield of 63.22 % and a quantum yield of 8.25 % using a green and simple hydrothermal method. Exploiting the inner filter effect (IFE), Cr(VI) effectively quenched the fluorescence of the Ni-LCDs, while the potent reducing agent ascorbic acid (AA) restored the quenched fluorescence, thus establishing a highly sensitive fluorescence switch sensor platform for the sequential detection of Cr(VI) and AA. Importantly, the integration of a smartphone facilitated the portability of Cr(VI) and AA detection, enabling on-site, in-situ, and real-time monitoring. Ultimately, the developed fluorescence and smartphone-assisted sensing platform was successfully applied to detect Cr(VI) in actual water samples and AA in various fruits. This study not only presents an efficient method for the conversion and utilization of waste lignin but also broadens the application scope of the CDs in the field of smart sensors.

From waste to wealth: iron oxide doped hydroxyapatite-based biosensor for the colorimetric detection of ascorbic acid

Ascorbic acid plays a pivotal role in the human body. It maintains the robustness, enlargement, and elasticity of the collagen triple helix. However, the abnormal concentration of ascorbic acid causes various diseases, such as scurvy, cardiovascular diseases, gingival bleeding, urinary stones, diarrhea, stomach convulsions, etc. In the present work, an iron-doped hydroxyapatite (HAp@Fe2O3)-based biosensor was developed for the colorimetric detection of ascorbic acid based on a low-cost, biocompatible, and ubiquitous material. Due to the catalytic nature of HAp owing to the acidic and basic moieties within the structure, it was used as a template for HAp@Fe2O3 synthesis. This approach provides an active as well as large surface area for the sensing of ascorbic acid. The synthesized platform was characterized by various techniques, such as UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, XRD, TGA, EDX, etc. The HAp@Fe2O3 demonstrated inherent peroxidase-like activity in the presence of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) oxidized with the assistance of H2O2. It resulted in the color changing to blue-green, and after the addition of ascorbic acid, the color changed to colorless, resulting in the reduction of TMB. To achieve optimal sensing parameters, experimental conditions were optimized. The quantity of HAp@Fe2O3, H2O2, pH, TMB, time, and the concentration of ascorbic acid were fine-tuned. The linear range for the proposed sensor was 0.6-56 μM, along with a limit of detection of 0.16 μM and a limit of quantification of 0.53 μM. The proposed sensor detects ascorbic acid within 75 seconds at room temperature. The proposed platform was also applied to quantitatively check the concentration of ascorbic acid in a physiological solution.

Validation of low-cost reflectometer to identify phytochemical accumulation in food crops

Diets consisting of greater quantity/diversity of phytochemicals are correlated with reduced risk of disease. This understanding guides policy development increasing awareness of the importance of consuming fruits, grains, and vegetables. Enacted policies presume uniform concentrations of phytochemicals across crop varieties regardless of production/harvesting methods. A growing body of research suggests that concentrations of phytochemicals can fluctuate within crop varieties. Improved awareness of how cropping practices influence phytochemical concentrations are required, guiding policy development improving human health. Reliable, inexpensive laboratory equipment represents one of several barriers limiting further study of the complex interactions influencing crop phytochemical accumulation. Addressing this limitation our study validated the capacity of a low-cost Reflectometer ($500) to measure phytochemical content in selected crops, against a commercial grade laboratory spectrophotometer. Our correlation results ranged from r2 = 0.81 for protein in wheat and oats to r2 = 0.99 for polyphenol content in lettuce in both the Reflectometer and laboratory spectrophotometer assessment, suggesting the Reflectometer provides an accurate accounting of phytochemical content within evaluated crops. Repeatability evaluation demonstrated good reproducibility of the Reflectometer to assess crop phytochemical content. Additionally, we confirmed large variation in phytochemical content within specific crop varieties, suggesting that cultivar is but one of multiple drivers of phytochemical accumulation. Our findings indicate dramatic nutrient variations could exist across the food supply, a point whose implications are not well understood. Future studies should investigate the interactions between crop phytochemical accumulation and farm management practices that influence specific soil characteristics.

On-site quantitation of xanthine in fish and serum using a smartphone-based spectrophotometer integrated with a dual-readout nanosensing assay

Rapid and quantitative biochemical analysis at points-of-need is imperative for food safety inspection. This work reports on: 1) a stand-alone smartphone-based "two-in-one" spectrophotometer (the SAFS) installed with a self-developed application (the SAFS-App) which can precisely collect both absorption spectra and fluorescence spectra in a reproducible manner within 5 s; and 2) a straightforward protocol for xanthine detection using fluorescent carbon nanodots and silver nanoparticles. The assay performed with the SAFS demonstrates high specificity towards xanthine, and a linear range of 1-60 μM with LODs of 0.38 and 0.58 μM for colorimetric and fluorometric readouts, respectively. The reliability and robustness of the SAFS are validated by on-site quantitation of xanthine in fish and serum samples, with comparable accuracy to HPLC method. More importantly, the SAFS presents itself as an appealing device which is accessible to everyone through the Internet of Things and can be tailored for diverse point-of-care testing applications.

Paracetamol-Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Functionalization with Ionic Liquid for the Colorimetric Biosensing of Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic acid is a vital biomolecule for human beings. When the body's level of ascorbic acid is abnormal, it can lead to a number of illnesses. Its appropriate concentration is necessary for the oxidation of prostaglandins and cyclic adenosine monophosphate, the production of dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and carnitine, and the expansion and durability of the collagen triple helix in humans. In the present work, silver nanoparticle synthesis was performed through a paracetamol-mediated approach. Different characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffractometry (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were used to confirm the prepared nanoparticles. Subsequently, the prepared Ag NPs functionalized with an ionic liquid were used as a sensing platform for ascorbic acid in blood serum samples. To achieve the best possible results, the proposed biosensor was optimized with different parameters such as TMB concentration, time, amount of capped nanoparticles (NPs), and pH. The proposed biosensor offers a sensitive and straightforward method for ascorbic acid with a linear range from 2 × 10-9 to 3.22 × 10-7 M, an LOD of 1.3 × 10-8 M, an LOQ of 4.3 × 10-8 M, and an R2 of 0.9996, Moreover, applications of the proposed biosensor were successfully used for the detection of ascorbic acid in samples of human plasma, suggesting that Ag NPs with high peroxidase-like activity, high stability, and facile synthesis exhibited promising applications in biomedical fields.

A miniaturized analytical system with packed epoxy-functionalized mesoporous organosilica for copper determination using a customized Android-based software

A smartphone-assisted determination of copper ions is introduced by using a down-scaled microfluidic mixer. The system was coupled with a micro-column packed with a periodic mesoporous organosilica (PMO) material for preconcentration of copper ions. Copper ions were reduced to Cu(I) on-chip to selectively form an orange-colored complex with neocuproine. A novel Android-based software was made to determine the color change of the adsorbent by analyzing red-green-blue (RGB) components of images from the packed PMO material. Four porous framework materials with high porosity and chemical stability were synthesized and compared for the extraction of the Cu-neocuproine complex. The main parameters influencing the complex extraction efficiency were optimized. The analytical performance of the method showed limit of detection and quantification of 0.2 μg L^-1 and 0.5 μg L^-1, respectively. The accuracy and precision of the method were determined as recovery > 92% and relative standard deviations < 5.2% at medium concentration level (n = 5). Due to accumulation of the retained analyte in a single point and elimination of the stripping step, the RGB-based method showed sensitivity and precision higher than inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) for determination of copper ions. To investigate the applicability of the method, six different water samples were analyzed. The t-test on the data showed that the method has no significant difference when compared with ICP-AES determination.

A portable Raspberry Pi-based spectrometer for on-site spectral testing

We designed a portable Raspberry Pi-based spectrometer, which mainly consists of a white LED acting as the wide-spectrum source, a reflection grating for light dispersion, and a CMOS imaging chip aiming at spectral recording. All the optical elements and Raspberry Pi were integrated using 3-D printing structures with a size of 118 mm × 92 mm × 84 mm, and home-built software was also designed for spectral recording, calibration, analysis, and display implemented with a touch LCD. Additionally, the portable Raspberry Pi-based spectrometer was equipped with an internal battery, thus supporting on-site applications. Tested by a series of verifications and applications, the portable Raspberry Pi-based spectrometer could reach a spectral resolution of 0.065 nm per pixel within the visible band and provide spectral detection with high accuracy. Therefore, it can be used for on-site spectral testing in various fields.

A smartphone-based fluorospectrophotometer and ratiometric fluorescence nanoprobe for on-site quantitation of pesticide residue

Cost-effective and user-friendly quantitation at points-of-need plays an important role in food safety inspection, environmental monitoring, and biomedical analysis. This study reports a stand-alone smartphone-based fluorospectrophotometer (the SBS) installed with a custom-designed application (the SBS-App) for on-site quantitation of pesticide using a ratiometric sensing scheme. The SBS can collect fluorescence emission spectra in the wavelength range of 380-760 nm within 5 s. A ratiometric fluorescence probe is facilely prepared by directly mixing the blue-emissive carbon nanodots (the Fe3+-specific fluorometric indicator) and red-emissive quantum dots (the internal standard) at a ratio of 11.6 (w/w). Based on the acetylcholinesterase/choline oxidase dual enzyme-mediated cascade catalytic reactions of Fe2+/Fe3+ transformation, a ratiometric fluorescence sensing scheme is developed. The practicability of the SBS is validated by on-site quantitation of chlorpyrifos in apple and cabbage with a comparable accuracy to the GC-MS method, offering a scalable solution to establish a cost-effective surveillance system for pesticide pollution.

Lab on a Chip Device for Diagnostic Evaluation and Management in Chronic Renal Disease: A Change Promoting Approach in the Patients' Follow Up

Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) systems are miniaturized devices aimed to perform one or several analyses, normally carried out in a laboratory setting, on a single chip. LOC systems have a wide application range, including diagnosis and clinical biochemistry. In a clinical setting, LOC systems can be associated with the Point-of-Care Testing (POCT) definition. POCT circumvents several steps in central laboratory testing, including specimen transportation and processing, resulting in a faster turnaround time. Provider access to rapid test results allows for prompt medical decision making, which can lead to improved patient outcomes, operational efficiencies, patient satisfaction, and even cost savings. These features are particularly attractive for healthcare settings dealing with complicated patients, such as those affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD). CKD is a pathological condition characterized by progressive and irreversible structural or functional kidney impairment lasting for more than three months. The disease displays an unavoidable tendency to progress to End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD), thus requiring renal replacement therapy, usually dialysis, and transplant. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of death in CKD, with a cardiovascular risk ten times higher in these patients than the rate observed in healthy subjects. The gradual decline of the kidney leads to the accumulation of uremic solutes, with negative effect on organs, especially on the cardiovascular system. The possibility to monitor CKD patients by using non-invasive and low-cost approaches could give advantages both to the patient outcome and sanitary costs. Despite their numerous advantages, POCT application in CKD management is not very common, even if a number of devices aimed at monitoring the CKD have been demonstrated worldwide at the lab scale by basic studies (low Technology Readiness Level, TRL). The reasons are related to both technological and clinical aspects. In this review, the main technologies for the design of LOCs are reported, as well as the available POCT devices for CKD monitoring, with a special focus on the most recent reliable applications in this field. Moreover, the current challenges in design and applications of LOCs in the clinical setting are briefly discussed.

Detection of Periodontal Disease Marker with Geometrical Transformation of Ag Nanoplates

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) are crucial salivary biomarkers for the diagnosis of periodontal disease that harms the periodontal tissue along with tooth loss. However, there has been no way of sensitive and portable detection of both biomarkers in saliva with multivariate signal readout. In this work, we design the multicolorimetric ALP and IL-1β sensing platform based on geometrical transformation of silver nanoplate transducer. By utilizing enzymatic activity of ALP that dephosphorylates p-aminophenol phosphate (p-APP) to p-aminophenol (p-AP), localized surface plasmon resonance properties of silver nanoplate vary with ALP and show a distinct color change from blue to yellow based on a controlled seed transformation from triangular to hexagonal, rounded pentagonal, and spherical shape. The multicolor sensor shows an ALP detection range of 0-25 U/L with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.0011 U/L, which is the lowest range of LOD demonstrated to date for state-of-the-art ALP sensor. Furthermore, we integrate the sensor with the conventional ELISA to detect IL-1β for multicolor signaling and it exhibits a linear detection range of 0-250 pg/mL and an LOD of 0.066 pg/mL, which is 2 orders of magnitude lower than the monochromic conventional ELISA (LOD of 3.8 pg/mL). The ALP multicolor sensor shows high selectivity with a recovery of 100.9% in real human saliva proving its reliability and suitability for the readily accessible periodontal diagnosis with multivariate signal readout.

A novel colorimetric detection of glutathione based on stable free radical TEMPO oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzizine (TMB) via Copper(II) acetylacetonate catalysis

In this work, a new colorimetric method for the determination of Glutathione (GSH) on the basis of stable free radical 2,2,6,6 - tetramethylpiperidine - 1 - oxyl (TEMPO) oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzizine (TMB) via copper(II) acetylacetonate (Cu(acac)₂) catalysis was proposed. TEMPO was catalyzed by Cu(acac)₂ to produce TEMPO⁺, then TEMPO⁺ oxidized TMB to produce oxidized TMB (ox - TMB). The resulting ox - TMB showed blue and possessed a distinct absorption peak about 650 nm. Whereas, GSH prohibited the generation of ox - TMB through inhibiting TMB oxidation. As compared to the case that GSH was absent, significantly enhanced absorption was determined, and was proportional to GSH amount. On this basis, a qualitative and quantitative detection method of GSH with the naked eye and the microplate reader was achieved. The developed TEMPO - based method achieved GSH biosensing with improved sensitivity in a good specificity - manner. The limit of detection (LOD) was 90 μM via naked eye, and the microplate reader was 4.71 μM. And the stable free radical TEMPO possessed higher stability and lower toxicity than traditional oxidant of H₂O₂. Moreover, this TEMPO - based method achieved good results in the detection of GSH in human serums.

Non-destructive assessment of vitamin C in foods: a review of the main findings and limitations of vibrational spectroscopic techniques

The constant increase in the demand for safe and high-quality food has generated the need to develop efficient methods to evaluate food composition, vitamin C being one of the main quality indicators. However, its heterogeneity and susceptibility to degradation makes the analysis of vitamin C difficult by conventional techniques, but as a result of technological advances, vibrational spectroscopy techniques have been developed that are more efficient, economical, fast, and non-destructive. This review focuses on main findings on the evaluation of vitamin C in foods by using vibrational spectroscopic techniques. First, the fundamentals of ultraviolet–visible, infrared and Raman spectroscopy are detailed. Also, chemometric methods, whose use is essential for a correct processing and evaluation of the spectral information, are described. The use and importance of vibrational spectroscopy in the evaluation of vitamin C through qualitative characterization and quantitative analysis is reported. Finally, some limitations of the techniques and potential solutions are described, as well as future trends related to the utilization of vibrational spectroscopic techniques.

Methyl viologen induced fluorescence quenching of CdTe quantum dots for highly sensitive and selective "off-on" sensing of ascorbic acid through redox reaction

A turn-on fluorescent sensor based on CdTe quantum dots (QDs) is designed for highly sensitive and selective ascorbic acid (AA) detection. CdTe shows a strong emission centered at 578 nm. When assembled with poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) and methyl viologen (Mv²⁺) through electrostatic interaction, the emission is found to be effectively quenched. In the presence of AA, Mv²⁺ is reduced to Mv⁺, making the fluorescence of CdTe QDs restored. Under the optimal conditions, the proposed AA sensing method shows a linear proportional response from 0.8 µM to 20 µM, with the detecting limit as low as 50 nM. The developed method was successfully applied in the analysis of AA in human serum samples and cell lysates with satisfactory results.

Ultrasensitive Picomolar Detection of Aqueous Acids in Microscale Fluorescent Droplets

We report on a fluorescent-droplet-based acid-sensing scheme that allows limits of detection below 100 pM for weak acids. The concept is based on a strong partitioning of acid from an aqueous phase into octanol droplets. Using salicylic acid as a demonstration, we show that at a high concentration, the acid partitions into the organic phase by a factor of 260, which is approximately consistent with literature values. However, at lower concentrations, we obtain a partition coefficient as high as 10⁶, which is partly responsible for the excellent sensing performance. The enhanced equilibrium partitioning is likely due to the interaction of the dissociated acid phase with the sensor dye employed for this work. The effect of droplet size was determined, after which we derived a simple model to predict the time dependence of the color change as a function of droplet size. This work shows that color-change fluorescent-droplet-based detection is a promising avenue that can lead to exceptional sensing performance from an aqueous analyte.

Colorimetric detection of citric acid as the biomarker for urolithiasis based on sodium dodecylsulfate-AgNPs with a portable CD-spectrometer

Citric acid (CA) has been considered as a biomarker of urolithiasis due to its vital suppression role in urinary stone formation. Most analytical methods for detecting CA are complicated and require expensive equipment. Herein, a colorimetric method based on sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) modified AgNPs was presented for convenient and portable detection of CA in urine. By detecting the absorption of the solution color, the quantitative detection of CA can be achieved. The pH value of SDS-AgNPs, concentration of Al³⁺ and incubation time were optimized. Under optimal conditions, the method has the detection range of 1-10 mg/L, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.21 mg/L. Moreover, a self-developed portable CD(Compact Disk)-spectrometer (CDs) was established for detecting CA with a LOD of 0.49 mg/L featuring high simplicity, low time cost and good portability. This method was also validated with good selectivity to CA. In addition, the artificial urine samples were also detected to verify the capability of the method and CDs. The results validated that the method integrating with the CDs can be a promising platform for citric acid detection that can be further used for early screening and prognostic monitoring of urolithiasis.

Multicolor diagnosis of salivary alkaline phosphatase triggered by silver-coated gold nanobipyramids

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is one of the most versatile biomarkers for early detection of several diseases, such as oral carcinomas and periodontitis; therefore, great efforts have been dedicated for developing an ALP biosensor. Multicolor detection of ALP in saliva is ideal for a point-of-care diagnosis; however, this approach is very challenging since spectral responses over wavelengths of several tens of nanometers have thus far remained difficult to achieve. In this work, a colorimetric biosensor for ALP assay has been developed based on ALP affinity to dephosphorylate glucose phosphate into glucose, which has the affinity to deposit Ag nanoshells onto Au nanobipyramids with a multicolor response. This approach provides a blue shift of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) as large as 190 nm corresponding to distinctive color changes, from yellowish brown to red based on the thickness of the formed Ag shell around the Au nanobipyramids. The change in the LSPR has been conducted for highly sensitive quantitative bioassay of ALP with a detectable multicolor change with linear dynamic range of 0.1-20 U/L and low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.085 U/L. Furthermore, the developed multicolor ALP biosensor exhibits high selectivity with high recovery of 98.6% demonstrating  its reliability and suitability for a point-of-care diagnosis.

A multi-channel handheld automatic spectrometer for wide range and on-site detection of okadaic acid based on specific aptamer binding

Okadaic acid (OA) is one of the marine toxins that are widely distributed and harmful to humans. However, the current detection methods for OA involve complex procedures, need long detection time, and rely on large-scale laboratory equipment. In this work, a multi-channel handheld automatic spectrometer (MHAS) based on a spectral sensor was developed with the advantages of small size, simple operation and low cost. It could achieve rapid detection within 30 s and a wide spectral detection range of 470-780 nm with a broadband LED as the light source and a microplate containing 8 wells as a sample cell. Moreover, through the combination of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and aptamer-OA34, a highly sensitive and rapid system for OA detection was established with a LOD of 1.80 μg L^-1 and a wide detection range of 20-10 000 μg L^-1, which is comparable to a microplate reader. Compared with other studies, the proposed MHAS realized rapid on-site detection of OA with a wider detection range, shorter detection time and higher portability. Therefore, the MHAS promises to be a stable and efficient optical detection instrument for on-site detection in the fields of food safety, disease diagnosis and environmental monitoring.

Development of QDs-based nanosensors for heavy metal detection: A review on transducer principles and in-situ detection

Heavy metal pollution has severe threats to the ecological environment and human health. Thus, it is urgent to achieve the rapid, selective, sensitive and portable detection of heavy metal ions. To overcome the defects of traditional methods such as time-consuming, low sensitivity, high cost and complicated operation, QDs (Quantum dots)-based nanomaterials have been used in sensors to significantly improve the sensing performance. Due to their excellent physicochemical properties, high specific surface area, high adsorption and reactive capacity, nanomaterials could act as potential probes or offer enhanced sensitivity and create a promising nanosensors platform. In this review, the rapidly advancing types of QDs for heavy metal ions detection are first summarized. Modified with ligands, nanomaterials, or biomaterials, QDs are assembled on sensors by the interaction of electrostatic adsorption, chemical bonding, steric hindrance, and base-pairing. The stability of QDs-based nanosensors is improved by doping the elements to QDs, providing the reference substance, optimizing the assemble strategies and so on. Then, according to transducer principles, the two most typical sensor categories based on QDs: optical and electrochemical sensors are highlighted to be discussed. In the meanwhile, portable devices combining with QDs to adapt the practical detection in complex situations are summarized. The deficiencies and future challenges of QDs in toxicity, specificity, portability, multi-metal co-detection and degradation during the detection are also pointed out. In the end, the development trends of QDs-based nanosensors for heavy metal ions detection are discussed. This review presents an overall understanding, recent advances, current challenges and future outlook of QDs-based nanosensors for heavy metal detection.

Low-cost smartphone-based LIBS combined with deep learning image processing for accurate lithology recognition

A low-cost and multi-channel smartphone-based spectrometer was developed for LIBS. As the CMOS detector is two-dimensional, simultaneous multichannel detection was achieved by coupling a linear array of fibres for light collection. Thus, besides the atomic information, the spectral images containing the propagation and spatial distribution characters of a laser induced plasma plume could be recorded. With these additional features, accurate rock type prediction was achieved by processing the raw data directly through a deep learning model.

Development of a smartphone-based lateral-flow imaging system using machine-learning classifiers for detection of Salmonella spp

Salmonella spp. are a foodborne pathogen frequently found in raw meat, egg products, and milk. Salmonella is responsible for numerous outbreaks, becoming a frequent major public-health concern. Many studies have recently reported handheld and rapid devices for microbial detection. This study explored a smartphone-based lateral-flow assay analyzer which employed machine-learning algorithms to detect various concentrations of Salmonella spp. from the test line images. When cell numbers are low, a faint test line is difficult to detect, leading to misleading results. Hence, this study focused on the development of a smartphone-based lateral-flow assay (SLFA) to distinguish ambiguous concentrations of test line with higher confidence. A smartphone cradle was designed with an angled slot to maximize the intensity, and the optimal direction of the optimal incident light was found. Furthermore, the combination of color spaces and the machine-learning algorithms were applied to the SLFA for classifications. It was found that the combination of L*a*b and RGB color space with SVM and KNN classifiers achieved the high accuracy (95.56%). A blind test was conducted to evaluate the performance of devices; the results by machine-learning techniques reported less error than visual inspection. The smartphone-based lateral-flow assay provided accurate interpretation with a detection limit of 5 × 10⁴ CFU/mL commercially available lateral-flow assays.

Optical-Based Biosensors and Their Portable Healthcare Devices for Detecting and Monitoring Biomarkers in Body Fluids

The detection and monitoring of biomarkers in body fluids has been used to improve human healthcare activities for decades. In recent years, researchers have focused their attention on applying the point-of-care (POC) strategies into biomarker detection. The evolution of mobile technologies has allowed researchers to develop numerous portable medical devices that aim to deliver comparable results to clinical measurements. Among these, optical-based detection methods have been considered as one of the common and efficient ways to detect and monitor the presence of biomarkers in bodily fluids, and emerging aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) with their distinct features are merging with portable medical devices. In this review, the detection methodologies that use optical measurements in the POC systems for the detection and monitoring of biomarkers in bodily fluids are compared, including colorimetry, fluorescence and chemiluminescence measurements. The current portable technologies, with or without the use of smartphones in device development, that are combined with optical biosensors for the detection and monitoring of biomarkers in body fluids, are also investigated. The review also discusses novel AIEgens used in the portable systems for the detection and monitoring of biomarkers in body fluid. Finally, the potential of future developments and the use of optical detection-based portable devices in healthcare activities are explored.

A multispectral-sensor-based colorimetric reader for biological assays

Tests that depend on changes in color are commonly used in biosensing. Here, we report on a colorimetric reader for such applications. The device is simple to construct and operate, making it ideal for research laboratories with limited resources or skilled personnel. It consists of a commercial multispectral sensor interfaced with a Raspberry Pi and a touchscreen. Unlike camera-based readers, this instrument requires no calibration of wavelengths by the user or extensive image processing to obtain results. We demonstrate its potential for colorimetric biosensing by applying it to the birefringent enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. It was able to prevent certain false positives that the assay is susceptible to and lowered its limit of detection for glucose by an order of magnitude.

A colorimetric alkaline phosphatase biosensor based on p-aminophenol-mediated growth of silver nanoparticles

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme that catalyzes the dephosphorylation of proteins, nucleic acids, and biomolecules. It is a potential biomarker for diverse diseases such as breast cancer, osteopenia, and hepatobiliary. Herein, we developed a colorimetric sensor for the ALP assay based on its enzymatic activity to dephosphorylate the p-aminophenol phosphate (pAPP) into pAP. In a solution containing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and Ag⁺ ions prepared using a low concentration of NaBH₄, pAP mediates the growth of AgNPs by reducing the concentration of Ag⁺ ions to enhance the intensity of localized surface plasmon resonance as the pAPP cannot induce a reduction of the remaining Ag⁺ due to the masking of the hydroxyl with phosphate. The quantitative assay of the ALP was demonstrated via the colorimetric detection of the pAP-mediated growth of AgNPs in the presence of an ALP. The highly sensitive enzymatic growth of AgNPs provided a wider dynamic linear range of 0.5-225 U/L with a lower limit of detection of 0.24 U/L than that previously reported. The use of pAP resulted in excellent selectivity of the sensor for the ALP assay in human serum, yielding a high recovery rate and a high precision of 99.2 ± 1.5 % for the standard addition method.

Optical biosensors - Illuminating the path to personalized drug dosing

Optical biosensors are low-cost, sensitive and portable devices that are poised to revolutionize the medical industry. Healthcare monitoring has already been transformed by such devices, with notable recent applications including heart rate monitoring in smartwatches and COVID-19 lateral flow diagnostic test kits. The commercial success and impact of existing optical sensors has galvanized research in expanding its application in numerous disciplines. Drug detection and monitoring seeks to benefit from the fast-approaching wave of optical biosensors, with diverse applications ranging from illicit drug testing, clinical trials, monitoring in advanced drug delivery systems and personalized drug dosing. The latter has the potential to significantly improve patients' lives by minimizing toxicity and maximizing efficacy. To achieve this, the patient's serum drug levels must be frequently measured. Yet, the current method of obtaining such information, namely therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), is not routinely practiced as it is invasive, expensive, time-consuming and skilled labor-intensive. Certainly, optical sensors possess the capabilities to challenge this convention. This review explores the current state of optical biosensors in personalized dosing with special emphasis on TDM, and provides an appraisal on recent strategies. The strengths and challenges of optical biosensors are critically evaluated, before concluding with perspectives on the future direction of these sensors.

Smartphone-based optical analysis systems

During the past few decades, there has been a growing trend towards the use of smartphone-based analysis systems. This is mainly due to its ubiquity, its increasing computing capacity, its relatively low cost and the ability to acquire and process data at the same time. Furthermore, there are many sensors integrated into a smartphone, for example a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor. A CMOS sensor enables optical analysis for example by using it as a colorimeter, photometer or spectrometer. This review explores the current state-of-the-art smartphone-based optical analysis systems in various areas of application. It is organized into three sections, each of which investigates one class of smartphone-based devices: (i) smartphone-based colorimeters (ii) smartphone-based photo- and spectrometers and (iii) smartphone-based fluorimeters.

Smartphone-based optical spectroscopic platforms for biomedical applications: a review [Invited]

Rapid advancements in smartphone technology have enabled the integration of many optical detection techniques that leverage the embedded functional components and software platform of these sophisticated devices. Over the past few years, several research groups have developed high-resolution smartphone-based optical spectroscopic platforms and demonstrated their usability in different biomedical applications. Such platforms provide unprecedented opportunity to develop point-of-care diagnostics systems, especially for resource-constrained environments. In this review, we discuss the development of smartphone systems for optical spectroscopy and highlight current challenges and potential solutions to improve the scope for their future adaptability.

Use of universal 3D-Printed smartphone spectrophotometer to develop a time-based analysis for hypochlorite

A fully-functional smartphone-based spectrophotometer was designed and built using 3D printing. The major advantage of this approach is its capacity to be interfaced with a variety of smartphones, allowing the use of the smartphone's camera and display, and regardless of the relative position of the camera. The analytical performance of the device was analyzed using a model dye (crystal violet), leading to a proportional response for concentrations in the 0.06-15.0 mg L^-1 range, with a variability of 1.0% (intra-day) and 2.6% (inter-day). To demonstrate the functionality of the device, the degradation process of the dye by sodium hypochlorite was studied. The results obtained were applied to develop a paper-based test for NaClO in sanitation solutions, in which the time required to bleach the dye was used to estimate the concentration of the solution. This device represents a simple and inexpensive tool for everyday laboratory use and could address important analytical challenges in low-income communities and features a versatile arrangement, that is compatible with a wide variety of smartphones and software platforms.

A Bendable Biofuel Cell-Based Fully Integrated Biomedical Nanodevice for Point-of-Care Diagnosis of Scurvy

Fully integrated nanodevices that allow the complete functional implementation without an external accessory or equipment are deemed to be one of the most ideal and ultimate goals for modern nanodevice design and construction. In this work, we demonstrate the first example of a bendable biofuel cell (BFC)-based fully integrated biomedical nanodevice with simple, palm-sized, easy-to-carry, pump-free, cost-saving, and easy-to-use features for the point-of-care (POC) diagnosis of scurvy from a single drop of untreated human serum (down to 0.2 μL) by integrating a bendable and disposable vitamin C/air microfluidic BFC (micro-BFC) (named iezCard) for self-powered vitamin C biosensing with a custom mini digital LED voltmeter (named iezBox) for signal processing and transmission, along with a ″built-in″ biocomputing BUFFER gate for intelligent diagnosis. Under the simplicity- and practicability-oriented idea, a cost-effective strategy (e.g., biomass-derived hierarchical micro-mesoporous carbon aerogels, screen-printed technique, a single piece of Kimwipes paper, LED display, and universal components) was implemented for nanodevice design rather than any top-end or pricey method (e.g., photolithography/electron-beam evaporation, peristaltic pump, wireless system, and 3D printing technique), which enormously reduces the cost of feedstock down to ∼USD 2.55 per integrated kit including a disposal iezCard (∼USD 0.08 per test) and a reusable iezBox (∼USD 2.47 for large-scale tests). These distinctive and attractive features allow such a fully integrated biomedical nanodevice to fully satisfy the basic requirements for POC diagnosis of scurvy from a single drop of raw human serum and make it particularly appropriate for resource-poor settings, where there is a lack of medical facilities, funds, and qualified personnel.

Continuous Hue-Based Self-Calibration of a Smartphone Spectrometer Applied to Optical Fiber Fabry-Perot Sensor Interrogation

Smartphone-based optical spectrometers allow the development of a new generation of portable and cost-effective optical sensing solutions that can be easily integrated into sensor networks. However, most commonly the spectral calibration relies on the external reference light sources which have known narrow spectral lines. Such calibration must be repeated each time the fiber and diffraction grating holders are removed from the smartphone and reattached. Moreover, the spectrometer wavelength scale can drift during the measurement because of the smartphone temperature fluctuations. The present work reports on a novel spectral self-calibration approach, based on the correspondence between the light wavelength and the hue features of the spectrum measured using a color RGB camera. These features are caused by the nonuniformity of camera RGB filters' responses and their finite overlap, which is a typical situation for RGB cameras. Thus, the wavelength scale should be externally calibrated only once for each smartphone spectrometer and can further be continuously verified and corrected using the proposed self-calibration approach. An ability of the plug-and play operation and the temperature drift elimination of the smartphone spectrometer was experimentally demonstrated. Conducted experiments involved interrogation of optical fiber Fabry-Perot interferometric sensor and demonstrated a nanometer-level optical path difference resolution.