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Girma A, Teshome K, Abdu I, Genet A, Tamir D. Prevalence and associated economic losses of bovine fasciolosis from postmortem inspection in municipal abattoirs in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet Anim Sci 2024; 24:100360. [PMID: 38831968 PMCID: PMC11145392 DOI: 10.1016/j.vas.2024.100360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Fasciolosis is a prevalent disease that significantly affects the health and productivity of cattle and causes significant economic loss. Beyond individually available studies with varying prevalence rates, there are no pooled national prevalence studies on bovine fasciolosis. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to determine the combined magnitude and economic significance of fasciolosis among cattle on postmortem examination. Inverse variance (I2), sensitivity analysis, funnel plots, Begg's test, and Egger's regression test were used to assess heterogeneity and publication bias. A random-effects model was used to calculate the pooled burden of fasciolosis among cattle. The pooled prevalence of fasciolosis among cattle on postmortem examination was 31.77 % (95 % CI=27.82-35.71). Among a total of 14,965 livers of slaughtered cattle examined in municipal abattoirs, Fasciola hepatica (54.4 %) was the predominant fluke identified compared to F. gigantica (24.6 %). Mixed infections of both species and unidentified immature flukes were detected in 12.4 % and 7.6 %, respectively, of affected livers. Regarding the severity of the pathological lesions observed, 30.5 %, 44.3 %, and 25.2 % of the livers were lightly, moderately, and seriously infested, respectively. The pooled annual economic loss attributed to fasciolosis-associated liver condemnation among cattle in 40 reported studies was approximately 40,833,983.15 ETB (6,417, 847.73 USD). Therefore, bovine fasciolosis requires integrated control methods to address its influence on animal health and economic impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abayeneh Girma
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Mekdela Amba University, P.O. Box 32, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia
| | - Kasaye Teshome
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Mekdela Amba University, P.O. Box 32, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia
| | - Indris Abdu
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Mekdela Amba University, P.O. Box 32, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia
| | - Amere Genet
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Mekdela Amba University, P.O. Box 32, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia
| | - Dessalew Tamir
- Department of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Debre Tabor University, P.O. Box 272, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
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Tumusiime M, Manishimwe JC, Ntampaka P. Prevalence of Bovine Trematodiases and Associated Risk Factors in Nyagatare District, Rwanda. VETERINARY MEDICINE (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2023; 14:221-231. [PMID: 38106360 PMCID: PMC10723075 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s430581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Trematodiases cause significant financial losses to livestock worldwide and some of which are zoonotic, raising public health concerns. In Rwanda, information on the prevalence of bovine trematodiases is scanty, and this hampers efforts to control and prevent them in the country. Methods This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the prevalence of bovine trematodiases in Nyagatare district and associated risk factors. One hundred cattle were randomly selected for this study and faecal samples were collected directly from the rectum to identify trematode eggs using a simple sedimentation technique. To analyze the data, frequencies, chi-square test, and binary logistic regression were computed. Results Overall, the prevalence of bovine trematodiases was 69%, and Paramphistomum spp. predominated (69%), followed by Dicrocoelium spp. (23%), Fasciola spp. (20%), and Echinostoma spp. (1.0%). The study also recorded mixed paramphistomiasis, fascioliasis and dicrocoeliasis (11.6%), paramphistomiasis and fascioliasis (15.9%) as well as paramphistomiasis and dicrocoeliasis (20.3%). The odds of having trematodiasis (mono or mixed fascioliasis and dicrocoeliasis) for the cow located in Barija cell (AOR = 0.143; 95% C.I. 0.026-0.793) were 14% lower compared to those of developing such parasitosis for the cow located in Bushoga cell. Conclusion Taken together, the study shows that trematodes are a significant contributor to lowering livestock production and productivity and pose a threat to human health. Different approaches should be applied to prevent and control the trematodiases in cows and other livestock (sheep and goats) and reduce the risk of contracting fascioliasis and echinostomiasis in humans in Nyagatare district, Rwanda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Tumusiime
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Nyagatare city, Eastern Province, Rwanda
| | | | - Pie Ntampaka
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Nyagatare city, Eastern Province, Rwanda
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Rodarte KA, Fair JM, Bett BK, Kerfua SD, Fasina FO, Bartlow AW. A scoping review of zoonotic parasites and pathogens associated with abattoirs in Eastern Africa and recommendations for abattoirs as disease surveillance sites. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1194964. [PMID: 37529427 PMCID: PMC10387540 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1194964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Abattoirs are facilities where livestock are slaughtered and are an important aspect in the food production chain. There are several types of abattoirs, which differ in infrastructure and facilities, sanitation and PPE practices, and adherence to regulations. In each abattoir facility, worker exposure to animals and animal products increases their risk of infection from zoonotic pathogens. Backyard abattoirs and slaughter slabs have the highest risk of pathogen transmission because of substandard hygiene practices and minimal infrastructure. These abattoir conditions can often contribute to environmental contamination and may play a significant role in disease outbreaks within communities. To assess further the risk of disease, we conducted a scoping review of parasites and pathogens among livestock and human workers in abattoirs across 13 Eastern African countries, which are hotspots for zoonoses. Our search results (n = 104 articles) showed the presence of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and macroparasites (nematodes, cestodes, etc.) in cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, camels, and poultry. Most articles reported results from cattle, and the most frequent pathogen detected was Mycobacterium bovis, which causes bovine tuberculosis. Some articles included worker survey and questionnaires that suggested how the use of PPE along with proper worker training and safe animal handling practices could reduce disease risk. Based on these findings, we discuss ways to improve abattoir biosafety and increase biosurveillance for disease control and mitigation. Abattoirs are a 'catch all' for pathogens, and by surveying animals at abattoirs, health officials can determine which diseases are prevalent in different regions and which pathogens are most likely transmitted from wildlife to livestock. We suggest a regional approach to biosurveillance, which will improve testing and data gathering for enhanced disease risk mapping and forecasting. Next generation sequencing will be key in identifying a wide range of pathogens, rather than a targeted approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie A. Rodarte
- Genomics and Bioanalytics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
| | - Jeanne M. Fair
- Genomics and Bioanalytics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
| | - Bernard K. Bett
- International Livestock Research Institute and ILRI/BMZ One Health Research, Education, Outreach and Awareness Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Susan D. Kerfua
- National Livestock Resources Research Institute, National Agricultural Research Organization, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Folorunso O. Fasina
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Andrew W. Bartlow
- Genomics and Bioanalytics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
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Fasciolosis prevalence, risk factors and economic losses due to bovine liver condemnation in abattoirs in Mexico. Microb Pathog 2022; 173:105851. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Sun P, Wronski T, Apio A, Edwards L. A holistic model to assess risk factors of fasciolosis in Ankole cattle. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2020; 22:100488. [PMID: 33308761 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2020.100488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In recent decades, remote sensing (RS) technology and geographical information systems (GIS) were increasingly used as tools for epidemiological studies and the control of zoonotic diseases. Fasciolosis, a zoonotic disease caused by a trematode parasite (Fasciola spp.), is a good candidate for the application of RS and GIS in epidemiology because it is strongly influenced by the environment, i.e. the habitat of the intermediate host. In this study, we examined variables which may increase the fasciolosis risk of Ankole cattle in the degraded and overgrazed Mutara rangelands of north-eastern Rwanda. The risk variables considered included three environmental variables (normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI; normalized difference moisture index, NDMI; normalized difference water index, NDWI), two landscape metric variables (rangeland proportion, building density), two geological variables (poorly-drained soil proportion, elevation) and three animal husbandry variables (herd size, adult proportion and the body condition score). Fasciola spp. prevalence was used as the dependent variable, sampling season as a fixed factor and four principal components (PCs, condensed from the ten risk variables) as covariates in a univariate General Linear Model. Fasciola spp. prevalence was positively correlated to rangeland proportion, cattle herd size in rural areas, adult proportion and individual body condition. Moreover, high Fasciola spp. prevalence was found in densely vegetated areas with high moisture (high values of NDVI and NDMI), in combination with large proportions of poorly-drained soil at low elevations. Future investigations should focus on increased sampling across the Mutara rangelands to prepare a predictive, spatial fasciolosis risk map that would help to further improve sustainable land-use management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Sun
- Faculty of Forest and Environment, University for Sustainable Development Eberswalde, Schicklerstraße 5, 16225 Eberswalde, Germany; School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK; Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Resources Management, College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box: 57, Nyagatare, Rwanda.
| | - Torsten Wronski
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK; Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Resources Management, College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box: 57, Nyagatare, Rwanda
| | - Ann Apio
- Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Resources Management, College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box: 57, Nyagatare, Rwanda
| | - Laura Edwards
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
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A systematic review on modelling approaches for economic losses studies caused by parasites and their associated diseases in cattle. Parasitology 2018; 146:129-141. [PMID: 30068403 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182018001282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Parasites reside inside or outside their hosts and get host nutrition and blood. Here, we have emphasized economic losses in cattle caused by parasitic diseases due to ecto- and endo- parasites (flies, ticks, mites and helminths). We have outlined different methods/models including economic evaluation techniques and dynamic analysis as a major class, used for the calculation of economic losses caused by parasites in cattle. According to already conducted studies, a decrease in production is mentioned in quantity and percentage while financial losses are expressed in the form of account with respect to per head, herd or for the specific study area. The parasites cause the reduced production and financial losses due to control, treatment and mortality costs. We calculated the average decrease in milk production and organ condemnation as 1.16 L animal-1 day-1 and 12.95%, respectively, from overall cattle parasitic infections. Moreover, the average calculated financial and percentage losses were US$ 50.67 animal-1 year-1 and 17.94%, respectively. Economically important parasitic diseases mentioned here are caused by specific spp. of protozoans and helminths according to data collected from the literature. Protozoan diseases include tick-borne diseases, coccidiosis, neosporosis, trypanosomiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Losses due to tick-borne infections were encountered for decreased milk production, mortality, treatment and control. Losses from coccidiosis were due to decreased weight gain, treatment costs and mortality. While abortion losses were encountered in neosporosis. Trypanosomiasis caused losses due to a decrease in milk yield. Moreover, only diagnostic (conventional or molecular techniques) cost was taken into account for cryptosporidiosis. Economically important nematode parasites are Oesophagostomum spp., Cooperia spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Strongyloides spp., Ostertagia spp. and Haemonchus placei. Due to the zoonotic importance of echinococcosis, Echinococcus granulosus is the most economically important cestode parasite. Losses caused by echinococcosis were due to organ condemnation, carcass weight loss and decreases hide value, milk production and fecundity. While, fascioliasis is one of the most economically important trematodal disease, which causes cirrhosis of the liver due to parasite migration, and thus, the organ becomes inedible. So, it would be helpful for farmers and researchers to approach these methods/models for calculation of parasitic losses and should adopt suitable measures to avoid long-term economic losses.
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Mushonga B, Habarugira G, Birori A, Kandiwa E, Samkange A, Bhebhe E. An epidemiological survey of the magnitude and local perceptions of porcine cysticercosis by two methods in Nyaruguru district, Rwanda. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2018; 14:18-24. [PMID: 31014726 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2018.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the magnitude of porcine cysticercosis (PC), its risk factors, economic effects and the perceptions of 80 pig farmers from Nyabimata (n = 38) and Muganza (n = 42) and 20 registered butchers in the Nyaruguru district of Rwanda. January to December 2013 slaughter records from Kamirabagenzi market were also analysed for PC diagnoses based on the tongue test and meat inspection. During this period, the responding farmers' records showed a tongue test-based PC magnitude (3.9%, n = 984) which was lower than the collective tongue test-based PC magnitude of 9.2% (n = 1720) at Kamirabagenzi (p < .05). The overall magnitude of PC based on routine meat inspection diagnosis at Kamirabagenzi was 4%. The overall magnitude of PC for respondents using Free-range production systems (7.9%) was significantly greater than for those in Semi-intensive (2.1%) and Intensive production systems (1.5%) (p < .05). Though most farmers (90%) knew that PC is zoonotic, only 22.5% of the farmers opted for treatment of PC-infected pigs and 52.5% were willing to seek veterinary inspection while the rest (25%) opted to circumvent veterinary inspection (P > .05). Most butchers (70%) indicated they would circumvent veterinary inspection and continue to slaughter PC-positive animals whilst the rest (30%) indicated they would resell PC positive animals to defray costs (P < .05). The low sensitivity and specificity of methods used for PC detection in the study, implies that this may just be the tip of an iceberg and the actual magnitude is most likely to be much higher. In conclusion, PC is endemic in the Nyaruguru district of Rwanda with a high proportion of positive animals. The condition has public health implications and is worsening the economic plight of the impoverished Nyaruguru community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borden Mushonga
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Neudamm Campus, University of Namibia, P. Bag 13301, Pioneerspark, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Gervais Habarugira
- School of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 57, Nyagatare, Rwanda.
| | - Aloys Birori
- School of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 57, Nyagatare, Rwanda
| | - Erick Kandiwa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Neudamm Campus, University of Namibia, P. Bag 13301, Pioneerspark, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Alaster Samkange
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Neudamm Campus, University of Namibia, P. Bag 13301, Pioneerspark, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Evison Bhebhe
- Department of Animal Science, School of Agriculture, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa
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McVeigh P, McCammick E, McCusker P, Wells D, Hodgkinson J, Paterson S, Mousley A, Marks NJ, Maule AG. Profiling G protein-coupled receptors of Fasciola hepatica identifies orphan rhodopsins unique to phylum Platyhelminthes. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2018; 8:87-103. [PMID: 29474932 PMCID: PMC6114109 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2018.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are established drug targets. Despite their considerable appeal as targets for next-generation anthelmintics, poor understanding of their diversity and function in parasitic helminths has thwarted progress towards GPCR-targeted anti-parasite drugs. This study facilitates GPCR research in the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, by generating the first profile of GPCRs from the F. hepatica genome. Our dataset describes 147 high confidence GPCRs, representing the largest cohort of GPCRs, and the largest set of in silico ligand-receptor predictions, yet reported in any parasitic helminth. All GPCRs fall within the established GRAFS nomenclature; comprising three glutamate, 135 rhodopsin, two adhesion, five frizzled, one smoothened, and one secretin GPCR. Stringent annotation pipelines identified 18 highly diverged rhodopsins in F. hepatica that maintained core rhodopsin signatures, but lacked significant similarity with non-flatworm sequences, providing a new sub-group of potential flukicide targets. These facilitated identification of a larger cohort of 76 related sequences from available flatworm genomes, representing new members of existing groups (PROF1/Srfb, Rho-L, Rho-R, Srfa, Srfc) of flatworm-specific rhodopsins. These receptors imply flatworm specific GPCR functions, and/or co-evolution with unique flatworm ligands, and could facilitate the development of exquisitely selective anthelmintics. Ligand binding domain sequence conservation relative to deorphanised rhodopsins enabled high confidence ligand-receptor matching of seventeen receptors activated by acetylcholine, neuropeptide F/Y, octopamine or serotonin. RNA-Seq analyses showed expression of 101 GPCRs across various developmental stages, with the majority expressed most highly in the pathogenic intra-mammalian juvenile parasites. These data identify a broad complement of GPCRs in F. hepatica, including rhodopsins likely to have key functions in neuromuscular control and sensory perception, as well as frizzled and adhesion/secretin families implicated, in other species, in growth, development and reproduction. This catalogue of liver fluke GPCRs provides a platform for new avenues into our understanding of flatworm biology and anthelmintic discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul McVeigh
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK.
| | - Erin McCammick
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Paul McCusker
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Duncan Wells
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Jane Hodgkinson
- Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Steve Paterson
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Angela Mousley
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Nikki J Marks
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Aaron G Maule
- Parasitology & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Medical Biology Centre, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, BT9 7BL, UK
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Study of Incidence of Gross Urogenital Lesions and Abnormalities on Does Slaughtered at Nyagatare Slaughterhouse, Eastern Province, Rwanda. J Vet Med 2017; 2017:7564019. [PMID: 29333485 PMCID: PMC5733152 DOI: 10.1155/2017/7564019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Reproductive and urinary tract abnormalities are a cause of infertility, reproductive inefficiency, and economic losses in goats. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and nature of reproductive and urinary tract abnormalities encountered in female goats slaughtered at Nyagatare abattoir in the Eastern Province of Rwanda. Reproductive and urinary organs from 369 female goat carcasses were opened by incision and then given a thorough macroscopic examination by visually inspecting and palpating for evidence of abnormalities. The results showed that there was an overall occurrence of 7.8% reproductive organ/tract abnormalities and 10.6% urinary organ/tract abnormalities. Ovarian hypoplasia was the reproductive abnormality with the highest overall occurrence (32.3%) and renal calculi were the urinary organ abnormality with the highest occurrence (38.1%). 95.2% of the reproductive organ/tract abnormalities observed usually result in infertility and 91.3% of the urinary organ/tract abnormalities observed result in economic losses through condemnation of kidneys at slaughter. The high incidence of the observed urinary organ/tract abnormalities represents a potential public health challenge. There was no significant difference in the occurrence of reproductive organ/tract abnormalities according to breed (p > 0.05, n = 31). There was also no significant difference in the occurrence of urinary organ abnormalities according to breed (p > 0.05, n = 42).
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A Quantitative Assessment of Causes of Bovine Liver Condemnation and Its Implication for Food Security in the Eastern Cape Province South Africa. SUSTAINABILITY 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/su9050736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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