Complex-shaped magnetic 3D cell-based structures for tissue engineering

Magneto-Enzymatic Microgels for Precise Hydrogel Sculpturing

The inclusion of hollow channels in tissue-engineered hydrogels is crucial for mimicking the natural physiological conditions and facilitating the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to cells. Although bio-fabrication techniques provide diverse strategies to create these channels, many require sophisticated equipment and time-consuming protocols. Herein, collagenase, a degrading agent for methacrylated gelatin hydrogels, and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are combined and processed into enzymatically active spherical structures using a straightforward oil bath emulsion methodology. The generated microgels are then used to microfabricate channels within biomimetic hydrogels via a novel sculpturing approach that relied on the precise coupling of protein-enzyme pairs (for controlled local degradation) and magnetic actuation (for directional control). Results show that the sculpting velocity can be tailored by adjusting the magnetic field intensity or concentration of MNPs within the microgels. Additionally, varying the magnetic field position or microgel size generated diverse trajectories and channels of different widths. This innovative technology improves the viability of encapsulated cells through enhanced medium transport, outperforming non-sculpted hydrogels and offering new perspectives for hydrogel vascularization and drug/biomolecule administration. Ultimately, this novel concept can help design fully controlled channels in hydrogels or soft materials, even those with complex tortuosity, in a single wireless top-down biocompatible step.

Magnetic-Based Strategies for Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering

The fabrication of biological substitutes to repair, replace, or enhance tissue- and organ-level functions is a long-sought goal of tissue engineering (TE). However, the clinical translation of TE is hindered by several challenges, including the lack of suitable mechanical, chemical, and biological properties in one biomaterial, and the inability to generate large, vascularized tissues with a complex structure of native tissues. Over the past decade, a new generation of "smart" materials has revolutionized the conventional medical field, transforming TE into a more accurate and sophisticated concept. At the vanguard of scientific development, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have garnered extensive attention owing to their significant potential in various biomedical applications owing to their inherent properties such as biocompatibility and rapid remote response to magnetic fields. Therefore, to develop functional tissue replacements, magnetic force-based TE (Mag-TE) has emerged as an alternative to conventional TE strategies, allowing for the fabrication and real-time monitoring of tissues engineered in vitro. This review addresses the recent studies on the use of MNPs for TE, emphasizing the in vitro, in vivo, and clinical applications. Future perspectives of Mag-TE in the fields of TE and regenerative medicine are also discussed.

Fabrication Strategies for Engineered Thin Membranous Tissues

Thin membranous tissues (TMTs) are anatomical structures consisting of multiple stratified cell layers, each less than 100 μm in thickness. While these tissues are small in scale, they play critical roles in normal tissue function and healing. Examples of TMTs include the tympanic membrane, cornea, periosteum, and epidermis. Damage to these structures can be caused by trauma or congenital disabilities, resulting in hearing loss, blindness, dysfunctional bone development, and impaired wound repair, respectively. While autologous and allogeneic tissue sources for these membranes exist, they are significantly limited by availability and patient complications. Tissue engineering has therefore become a popular strategy for TMT replacement. However, due to their complex microscale architecture, TMTs are often difficult to replicate in a biomimetic manner. The critical challenge in TMT fabrication is balancing fine resolution with the ability to mimic complex target tissue anatomy. This Review reports existing TMT fabrication strategies, their resolution and material capabilities, cell and tissue response, and the advantages and disadvantages of each technique.

Complex Architectural Control of Ice-Templated Collagen Scaffolds Using a Predictive Model

The architectural and physiomechanical properties of regenerative scaffolds have been shown to improve engineered tissue function at both a cellular and tissue level. The fabrication of regenerative three-dimensional scaffolds that precisely replicate the complex hierarchical structure of native tissue, however, remains a challenge. The aim of this work is therefore two-fold: i) demonstrate an innovative multidirectional freeze-casting system to afford precise architectural control of ice-templated collagen scaffolds; and ii) present a predictive simulation as an experimental design tool for bespoke scaffold architecture. We used embedded heat sources within the freeze-casting mold to manipulate the local thermal environment during solidification of ice-templated collagen scaffolds. The resultant scaffolds comprised complex and spatially varied lamellar orientations that correlated with the imposed thermal environment and could be readily controlled by varying the geometry and power of the heat sources. The complex macro-architecture did not interrupt the hierarchical features characteristic of ice-templated scaffolds, but pore orientation had a significant impact on the stiffness of resultant structures under compression. Furthermore, our finite element model (FEM) accurately predicted the thermal environment and illustrated the freezing front topography within the mold during solidification. The lamellar orientation of freeze-cast scaffolds was also predicted using thermal gradient vector direction immediately prior to phase change. In combination our FEM and bespoke freeze-casting system present an exciting opportunity for tailored architectural design of ice-templated regenerative scaffolds that mimic the complex hierarchical environment of the native extracellular matrix. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Biomimetic scaffold structure improves engineered tissue function, but the fabrication of three-dimensional scaffolds that precisely replicate the complex hierarchical structure of native tissue remains a challenge. Here, we leverage the robust relationship between thermal gradients and lamellar orientation of ice-templated collagen scaffolds to develop a multidirectional freeze-casting system with precise control of the thermal environment and consequently the complex lamellar structure of resultant scaffolds. Demonstrating the diversity of our approach, we identify heat source geometry and power as control parameters for complex lamellar orientations. We simultaneously present a finite element model (FEM) that describes the three-dimensional thermal environment during solidification and accurately predicts lamellar structure of resultant scaffolds. The model serves as a design tool for bespoke regenerative scaffolds.

Freestanding Magnetic Microtissues for Tissue Engineering Applications

A long-sought goal in tissue engineering (TE) is the development of tissues able to recapitulate the complex architecture of the native counterpart. Microtissues, by resembling the functional units of living structures, can be used to recreate tissues' architecture. Howbeit, microfabrication methodologies fail to reproduce cell-based tissues with uniform shape. At the macroscale, complex tissues are already produced by magnetic-TE using solely magnetized cells as building materials. The enhanced extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition guaranties the conservation of tissues' architecture, leading to a successful cellular engraftment. Following the same rational, now the combination of a versatile microfabrication-platform is proposed with magnetic-TE to generate robust micro-tissues with complex architecture for TE purposes. Small tissue units with circle, square, and fiber-like shapes are designed with high fidelity acting as building blocks for engineering complex tissues. Notably, freestanding microtissues maintain their geometry after 7 days post-culturing, overcoming the challenges of microtissues fabrication. Lastly, the ability of microtissues in invading distinct tissue models while releasing trophic factors is substantiated in methacryloyl laminarin (LAM) and platelet lysates (PLMA) hydrogels. By simply using cells as building units and such microfabrication-platform, the fabrication of complex multiscale and multifunctional tissues with clinical relevance is envisaged, including for therapies or disease models.

Engineering mammalian living materials towards clinically relevant therapeutics

Engineered living materials represent a new generation of human-made biotherapeutics that are highly attractive for a myriad of medical applications. In essence, such cell-rich platforms provide encodable bioactivities with extended lifetimes and environmental multi-adaptability currently unattainable in conventional biomaterial platforms. Emerging cell bioengineering tools are herein discussed from the perspective of materializing living cells as cooperative building blocks that drive the assembly of multiscale living materials. Owing to their living character, pristine cellular units can also be imparted with additional therapeutically-relevant biofunctionalities. On this focus, the most recent advances on the engineering of mammalian living materials and their biomedical applications are herein outlined, alongside with a critical perspective on major roadblocks hindering their realistic clinical translation. All in all, transposing the concept of leveraging living materials as autologous tissue-building entities and/or self-regulated biotherapeutics opens new realms for improving precision and personalized medicine strategies in the foreseeable future.

Minimalist Tissue Engineering Approaches Using Low Material-Based Bioengineered Systems

From an "over-engineering" era in which biomaterials played a central role, now it is observed to the emergence of "developmental" tissue engineering (TE) strategies which rely on an integrative cell-material perspective that paves the way for cell self-organization. The current challenge is to engineer the microenvironment without hampering the spontaneous collective arrangement ability of cells, while simultaneously providing biochemical, geometrical, and biophysical cues that positively influence tissue healing. These efforts have resulted in the development of low-material based TE strategies focused on minimizing the amount of biomaterial provided to the living key players of the regenerative process. Through a "minimalist-engineering" approach, the main idea is to fine-tune the spatial balance occupied by the inanimate region of the regenerative niche toward maximum actuation of the key living components during the healing process.