Urban overdose hotspots: a 12-month prospective study in Dublin ambulance services

Social Determinants of Health and Emergency Medical Services: A Scoping Review

OBJECTIVES

Social determinants of health (SDOH) are the non-medical factors that affect people's health and quality of life. Emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians are in a unique position to recognize and respond to SDOH through their presence and responses in the communities they serve. The objective of this study was to generally explore the existing body of literature of SDOH within the context of EMS.

METHODS

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guided the analysis of peer-reviewed literature from PubMed, CINAHL, and Web of Science databases published between January 1960 and June 2024. Using Covidence software, titles and abstracts then, separately, full texts, were reviewed by two distinct researchers to include studies published in English that referenced SDOH and EMS. We later excluded articles that were published before 2010, when the SDOH term was made more popular by its inclusion in the Healthy People 2020 project. Reviewers then performed data extraction for qualitative analysis using a grounded theory approach.

RESULTS

Of the 1,503 records imported from the databases (PubMed n = 779, Web of Science n = 687, CINAHL n = 37), 1,164 unique manuscripts were screened, and 62 full texts were assessed for eligibility. Forty-two articles met inclusion criteria; 39 were EMS patient-centric and three were illustrative of EMS clinicians' SDOH, thus excluded from this analysis. Patient-related impact levels included individual characteristics, community characteristics, EMS clinicians' recognition of and response to SDOH, healthcare system factors, and social and cultural considerations. Articles were on the topic areas of medical conditions, EMS practice, trauma, pediatrics, and mental health. More than half (n = 24) of the manuscripts were from studies conducted in North America and a majority (n = 32) of the papers were published since 2020.

CONCLUSIONS

Research in SDOH and their association with EMS is rapidly growing. A deeper understanding of how the EMS system and EMS clinicians affect, recognize, and manage patients' SDOH insecurities can improve efforts toward health equity and improve patients' health outcomes.

Children's unscheduled primary and emergency care in Ireland: a multimethod approach to understanding decision making, trends, outcomes and parental perspectives (CUPID): project protocol

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this project is to determine the patterns, decision-making processes and parental preferences associated with unscheduled paediatric healthcare utilisation in Ireland. Unscheduled paediatric healthcare is outpatient care provided within primary care settings by general practitioners (GPs), emergency departments (EDs) located in paediatric and general hospitals, and out-of-hours services provided by cooperatives of GPs operating on a regional basis. This project will take a multimethod approach to analysing the utilisation of unscheduled paediatric healthcare nationally within the context of a significant change to the provision of healthcare for young children in Ireland-the introduction of free at the point of delivery GP care for all children aged under 6.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A multimethod approach consisting of three work packages will be employed. Using patient-level data, work package 1 will describe patterns of attendance at primary care, out-of-hours medical services and at EDs. Applying a difference-in-difference methodology, the impact of the introduction of free GP care for children under 6 on attendance will be assessed. Work package 2 will explore geospatial trends of attendance at EDs, identifying disparities in ED attendance by local area and demographic characteristics. Work package 3 will employ two discrete choice experiments to examine parental preferences for unscheduled paediatric healthcare and GP decision making when referring a child to the ED. The insights gained by each of the work packages individually and collectively will inform evidence-based health policy for the organisation of paediatric care and resource allocation.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval for this research has been granted by University College Dublin, The Irish College of General Practitioners and the five participating hospitals. Results will be disseminated via publication in peer-reviewed journals, national and international conferences, and to relevant stakeholders and interest groups.

Incidence and predictors of drug overdoses among a cohort of >10,000 patients treated for substance use disorder

BACKGROUND

Drug overdoses remain a significant public health burden throughout the world. This study assessed the incidence and predictors of non-fatal and fatal drug overdoses among patients with an opioid use, treated for drug use disorders (DUD) at public treatment centers in Denmark.

METHODS

A consecutive cohort of patients (n = 11,199) were tracked from date of first registered enrollment between the year 2000 and 2010 to first registered drug overdose, death or December 31st 2010, whichever occurred first. Competing-risks regression models were fitted to estimate the sub hazard ratios (SHRs) of non-fatal and fatal drug overdoses and confounding risk factors.

RESULTS

A total of 3186 (28%) patients experienced a non-fatal drug overdose during follow-up, and 572 (6%) died from an overdose. Use of benzodiazepines (SHR: 1.15 95% CI 1.03, 1.28) was significantly associated with non-fatal overdose. Intravenous drug use and previous hospitalization for a non-fatal overdose increased the risk of later non-fatal (SHR: 1.57 95% CI 1.42, 1.73) and fatal overdoses (SHR: 1.43 95% CI 1.12, 1.82).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients who use opioids remain at risk of overdoses for a long time after discharge from drug treatment. Besides relevant monitoring and psychosocial support in opioid maintenance treatment, there is a need for informing and educating opioid users in risk factors and preventive measures in settings where they are often difficult to access for traditional treatment services.

Factors associated with help seeking by community responders trained in overdose prevention and naloxone administration in Massachusetts

BACKGROUND

Community overdose responders do not always seek help from emergency services when administering naloxone. We aimed to identify responder, overdose event, and community characteristics associated with help seeking from emergency services during overdoses reported by Massachusetts Overdose Education and Naloxone Distribution (OEND) enrollees, and to assess trends in help seeking over time.

METHODS

We analyzed overdose reports submitted between 2007 and 2017 to the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. We used logistic regression, stratified by responder drug use status, to assess associations of characteristics with help seeking during an overdose.

RESULTS

From January 2007 through December 2017, there were 69,870 OEND enrollees. 5,588 enrollees reported 10,246 overdoses. Help seeking was more likely among responders who did not use drugs. Among responders who did not use drugs, help seeking was more likely when: the responder was older or female, the victim was a stranger or client, and when naloxone did not work. Among responders who used drugs, help seeking was more likely when: the responder was female or had not previously reported responding to an overdose, the victim was a stranger or client or did not use fentanyl, naloxone took a longer time to work, and when the overdose was public or occurred more recently. The percentage of overdoses where help seeking occurred reached a maximum in 2016 at 50%.

CONCLUSIONS

Help seeking by OEND enrollees was significantly associated with several responder, victim, and event characteristics. Targeted interventions to promote help seeking are warranted, particularly as the lethality of opioid supplies rises.

Using Network and Spatial Data to Better Target Overdose Prevention Strategies in Rural Appalachia

This analysis uses network and spatial data to identify optimal individuals to target with overdose prevention interventions in rural Appalachia. Five hundred and three rural persons who use drugs were recruited to participate in the Social Networks among Appalachian People Study (2008-2010). Interviewer-administered surveys collected information on demographic characteristics, risk behaviors (including overdose history), network members, and residential addresses. We restricted the sample to individuals with at least one confirmed relationship to another study participant (N = 463). Using dyadic analyses (N = 1428 relationships), we identified relationship-level correlates of relationships with network members who have previously overdosed. We then examined individual- and network-level factors associated with (1) having at least one first-degree alter (i.e., network member) with a prior overdose and (2) each additional network member with a prior overdose (N = 463 study participants). Overall, 28% of the sample had previously overdosed and 57% were one-degree away from someone who previously overdosed. Relationships with those who had overdosed were characterized by closer residential proximity. Those with at least one network member who previously overdosed were more geographically central and occupied more central network positions. Further, the number of network members with an overdose history increased with decreasing distance to the town center, increasing network centrality, and prior enrollment in an alcohol detox program. Because fatal overdoses can be prevented through bystander intervention, these findings suggest that strategies that target more central individuals (both geographically and based on their network positions) and those who have previously enrolled in alcohol detox programs with overdose prevention training and naloxone may optimize intervention reach and have the potential to curb overdose fatalities in this region.

Correlates of seeking emergency medical help in the event of an overdose in British Columbia, Canada: Findings from the Take Home Naloxone program

BACKGROUND

British Columbia (BC), Canada, is experiencing an unprecedented number of opioid overdoses mainly due to the contamination of illicit drugs with fentanyl and its analogues. Reluctance to seek emergency medical help (i.e., by calling 9-1-1) has been identified as a barrier to optimal care for overdose victims. This study aimed to identify the correlates of seeking help during an overdose event when naloxone was administered via BC's Take Home Naloxone (THN) program.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we reviewed administrative records (from July 2015 to December 2017) about overdose events submitted by THN participants when they received their replacement naloxone kits (n = 2350). The primary outcome of the study was reported calling 9-1-1 and modified Poisson regression models were built to investigate the factors associated with help-seeking during an overdose event.

RESULTS

Most overdose victims were men (69.0%) and >30 years old (61.5%). Overall, participants reported calling 9-1-1 in 1310 (55.7%) overdose events. In the multivariable model, the likelihood of calling 9-1-1 was significantly and positively associated with the overdose victim being male and receiving rescue breathing. The likelihood of calling 9-1-1 was significantly and negatively associated with the overdoses occurring in private residences and health regions other than Vancouver Coastal which delivers services to mostly urban residents.

CONCLUSION

Overall, medical help was sought for 55.7% of overdoses where naloxone was administered. Overdoses occurring among male victims as well as those receiving higher doses of naloxone and mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing were associated with a higher likelihood of help-seeking by responders. Future interventions need to encourage people who witness an overdose to seek emergency medical help.

General practitioners tackle complex addictions: how complex interventions can assist in dealing with addiction

Objectives

Substance use disorder treatment is a complex problem. Complex problems require complex interventions, ideally tested via randomised controlled trials.

Methods

Complex interventions are best developed in stages, using established implementation frameworks.

Results and Conclusions

Starting with a historical patient case study, we explore how treatment of this challenging population group has been approached, how an evidence-based framework has informed formulation of a complex health intervention and how this has been progressed via the UK’s Medical Research Council (MRC) approach.

Opiate use disorders and overdose: Medical students' experiences, satisfaction with learning, and attitudes toward community naloxone provision

INTRODUCTION

Opiate use disorder is a common condition in healthcare services in Ireland, where over 200 opiate overdose deaths occur annually. There is limited addiction medicine education at undergraduate level and medical graduates may not be adequately prepared to diagnose and manage opioid use disorders and emergency drug overdose presentations. Therefore, we examined final-year medical students' learning experiences and attitudes toward opioid use disorder, overdose and community naloxone provision as an emerging overdose treatment.

METHODS

We administered an anonymous paper-based survey to 243 undergraduate medical students undertaking their final professional completion module prior to graduation from University College Dublin, Ireland. Results were compared with parallel surveys of General Practitioners (GPs) and GP trainees.

RESULTS

A total of 197 (82.1%) completed the survey. Just under half were male, and most were aged under 25 (63.3%) and of Irish nationality (76.7%). The students felt moderately prepared to recognise opioid use disorder, but felt less prepared to manage other aspects of its care. Most had taken a history from a patient with an opioid use disorder (82.8%), and a third had witnessed at least one opioid overdose. Although 10.3% had seen naloxone administered, most had never administered naloxone themselves (98.5%). Half supported wider naloxone availability; this was lower than support rates among GPs (63.6%) and GP trainees (66.1%).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest an unmet learning need in undergraduate training on opioid use disorder, with potential consequences for patient care.

Circumstances surrounding non-fatal opioid overdoses attended by ambulance services

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS

Opioid overdose fatalities are a significant concern globally. Non-fatal overdoses have been described as a strong predictor for future overdoses, and are often attended by the ambulance services. This paper explores characteristics associated with non-fatal overdoses and aims to identify possible trends among these events in an urban area in Norway.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This is a retrospective analysis of non-fatal overdoses from Bergen ambulance services from 2012 to 2013. Demographic, temporal and geographic data were explored.

RESULTS

During the two years, 463 non-fatal opioid overdoses were attended by ambulance services. Ambulance call-outs occurred primarily during the late afternoon and evening hours of weekdays. Summer months had more overdoses than other seasons, with a peak in August. Overdoses were nearly twice as likely to occur in a public location in August (risk ratio 1.92, P = 0.042). Ambulance response times were more likely to be longer to private locations, and these victims were more likely to be treated and left at the scene. There was no difference in arrival time for drug-related and non-drug related dispatch.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The temporal patterns suggest that non-fatal overdoses occur during non-recreational time periods. The longer ambulance response time and disposition for private addresses indicate potential opportunities for peer interventions. Our analysis describes circumstances surrounding non-fatal overdoses and can be useful in guiding relevant, targeted prevention interventions. [Madah-Amiri D, Clausen T, Myrmel L, Brattebø G, Lobmaier P. Circumstances surrounding non-fatal opioid overdoses attended by ambulance services. Drug Alcohol Rev 2017;36:288-294].

Opiate addiction and overdose: experiences, attitudes, and appetite for community naloxone provision

BACKGROUND

More than 200 opiate overdose deaths occur annually in Ireland. Overdose prevention and management, including naloxone prescription, should be a priority for healthcare services. Naloxone is an effective overdose treatment and is now being considered for wider lay use.

AIM

To establish GPs' views and experiences of opiate addiction, overdose care, and naloxone provision.

DESIGN AND SETTING

An anonymous postal survey to GPs affiliated with the Department of Academic General Practice, University College Dublin, Ireland.

METHOD

A total of 714 GPs were invited to complete an anonymous postal survey. Results were compared with a parallel GP trainee survey.

RESULTS

A total of 448/714 (62.7%) GPs responded. Approximately one-third of GPs were based in urban, rural, and mixed areas. Over 75% of GPs who responded had patients who used illicit opiates, and 25% prescribed methadone. Two-thirds of GPs were in favour of increased naloxone availability in the community; almost one-third would take part in such a scheme. A higher proportion of GP trainees had used naloxone to treat opiate overdose than qualified GPs. In addition, a higher proportion of GP trainees were willing to be involved in naloxone distribution than qualified GPs. Intranasal naloxone was much preferred to single (P<0.001) or multiple dose (P<0.001) intramuscular naloxone. Few GPs objected to wider naloxone availability, with 66.1% (n = 292) being in favour.

CONCLUSION

GPs report extensive contact with people who have opiate use disorders but provide limited opiate agonist treatment. They support wider availability of naloxone and would participate in its expansion. Development and evaluation of an implementation strategy to support GP-based distribution is urgently needed.

Factors associated with opioid overdose: a 10-year retrospective study of patients in a large integrated health care system

Objective

Opioid overdoses (ODs) have been increasing, and harm reduction efforts are a priority. The success of these efforts will be dependent on the identification of at-risk patients and improved access to the antidote naloxone. Therefore, to identify access to naloxone and factors associated with negative health outcomes, we conducted a retrospective study of patients with OD to identify those at highest risk of adverse outcomes and to assess the use of naloxone.

Methods

We conducted a study of electronic health records for patients admitted to the largest multihospital system in the region – the Geisinger Health System (GHS) for ODs – from April 2005 through March 2015. ODs were defined by International Classification of Diseases-9 codes (age range: 10–95 years). Bivariate analyses and multiple logistic regressions were conducted to identify pre-OD factors associated with adverse health outcomes post-OD.

Results

We identified 2,039 patients with one or more ODs, of whom 9.4% were deceased within 12 months. Patient demographics suggest that patients with OD had a mean age of 52 years, were not married (64%), and were unemployed (78%). Common comorbidities among patients with OD include cardiovascular disease (22%), diabetes (14%), cancer (13%), and the presence of one or more mental health disorders (35%). Few patients had a prescription order for naloxone (9%) after their OD. The majority of patients with OD were in proximity to GHS health care facilities, with 87% having a GHS primary care provider. In multiple logistic regressions, common predictors of adverse outcomes, including death, repeated ODs, frequent service use, and high service cost, were higher prescription opioid use, comorbid medical conditions, comorbid mental disorders, and concurrent use of other psychotropic medications.

Conclusion

This study suggests opportunities for improving OD outcomes. Those who receive higher quantities of prescription opioids concurrent with other psychotropic medicines may need closer monitoring to avoid death, repeated OD events, higher service use, and higher service costs. Other opportunities for improving OD outcomes include the use of electronic health records to notify physicians of high-risk patients and updating of guidelines/operation manuals focused on the distribution of naloxone to those in highest need.

Predictors of seeking emergency medical help during overdose events in a provincial naloxone distribution programme: a retrospective analysis

OBJECTIVES

This study sought to identify factors that may be associated with help-seeking by witnesses during overdoses where naloxone is administered.

SETTING

Overdose events occurred in and were reported from the five regional health authorities across British Columbia, Canada. Naloxone administration forms completed following overdose events were submitted to the British Columbia Take Home Naloxone programme.

PARTICIPANTS

All 182 reported naloxone administration events, reported by adult men and women and occurring between 31 August 2012 and 31 March 2015, were considered for inclusion in the analysis. Of these, 18 were excluded: 10 events which were reported by the person who overdosed, and 8 events for which completed forms did not indicate whether or not emergency medical help was sought.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Seeking emergency medical help (calling 911), as reported by participants, was the sole outcome measure of this analysis.

RESULTS

Medical help was sought (emergency services-911 called) in 89 (54.3%) of 164 overdoses where naloxone was administered. The majority of administration events occurred in private residences (50.6%) and on the street (23.4%), where reported rates of calling 911 were 27.5% and 81.1%, respectively. Overdoses occurring on the street (compared to private residence) were significantly associated with higher odds of calling 911 in multivariate analysis (OR=10.68; 95% CI 2.83 to 51.87; p<0.01), after adjusting for other variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Overdoses occurring on the street were associated with higher odds of seeking emergency medical help by responders. Further research is needed to determine if sex and stimulant use by the person who overdosed are associated with seeking emergency medical help. The results of this study will inform interventions within the British Columbia Take Home Naloxone programme and other jurisdictions to encourage seeking emergency medical help.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2014

This paper is the thirty-seventh consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2014 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (endogenous opioids and receptors), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (pain and analgesia); stress and social status (human studies); tolerance and dependence (opioid mediation of other analgesic responses); learning and memory (stress and social status); eating and drinking (stress-induced analgesia); alcohol and drugs of abuse (emotional responses in opioid-mediated behaviors); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (opioid involvement in stress response regulation); mental illness and mood (tolerance and dependence); seizures and neurologic disorders (learning and memory); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (opiates and conditioned place preferences (CPP)); general activity and locomotion (eating and drinking); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (alcohol and drugs of abuse); cardiovascular responses (opiates and ethanol); respiration and thermoregulation (opiates and THC); and immunological responses (opiates and stimulants). This paper is the thirty-seventh consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2014 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (endogenous opioids and receptors), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (pain and analgesia); stress and social status (human studies); tolerance and dependence (opioid mediation of other analgesic responses); learning and memory (stress and social status); eating and drinking (stress-induced analgesia); alcohol and drugs of abuse (emotional responses in opioid-mediated behaviors); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (opioid involvement in stress response regulation); mental illness and mood (tolerance and dependence); seizures and neurologic disorders (learning and memory); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (opiates and conditioned place preferences (CPP)); general activity and locomotion (eating and drinking); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (alcohol and drugs of abuse); cardiovascular responses (opiates and ethanol); respiration and thermoregulation (opiates and THC); and immunological responses (opiates and stimulants).

Development and process evaluation of an educational intervention for overdose prevention and naloxone distribution by general practice trainees

BACKGROUND

Overdose is the most common cause of fatalities among opioid users. Naloxone is a life-saving medication for reversing opioid overdose. In Ireland, it is currently available to ambulance and emergency care services, but General Practitioners (GP) are in regular contact with opioid users and their families. This positions them to provide naloxone themselves or to instruct patients how to use it. The new Clinical Practice Guidelines of the Pre-hospital Emergency Care Council of Ireland allows trained bystanders to administer intranasal naloxone. We describe the development and process evaluation of an educational intervention, designed to help GP trainees identify and manage opioid overdose with intranasal naloxone.

METHODS

Participants (N = 23) from one postgraduate training scheme in Ireland participated in a one-hour training session. The repeated-measures design, using the validated Opioid Overdose Knowledge (OOKS) and Attitudes (OOAS) Scales, examined changes immediately after training. Acceptability and satisfaction with training were measured with a self-administered questionnaire.

RESULTS

Knowledge of the risks of overdose and appropriate actions to be taken increased significantly post-training [OOKS mean difference, 3.52 (standard deviation 4.45); P < 0.001]; attitudes improved too [OOAS mean difference, 11.13 (SD 6.38); P < 0.001]. The most and least useful delivery methods were simulation and video, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Appropriate training is a key requirement for the distribution of naloxone through general practice. In future studies, the knowledge from this pilot will be used to inform a train-the-trainer model, whereby healthcare professionals and other front-line service providers will be trained to instruct opioid users and their families in overdose prevention and naloxone use.