Diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound for upper extremity fractures in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Ultrasound Secondary Signs for the Diagnosis of Pediatric Distal Forearm Fractures: A Diagnostic Study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound secondary signs of fractures in pediatric patients aged 5-15 y presenting to the emergency department with a clinically non-deformed distal forearm injury.

METHODS

This diagnostic study was conducted in South East Queensland, Australia. Emergency clinicians performed point-of-care ultrasound on eligible patients and recorded secondary signs of fractures (pronator quadratus hematoma [PQH] sign, periosteal hematoma, visible angulation) or physeal fractures (fracture-to-physis distance [FPD], physis alteration). The reference standard was the final fracture diagnosis determined by expert panel. The primary outcome was the diagnostic accuracy of secondary signs for cortical breach and physeal fractures. Diagnostic statistics were reported for each relevant secondary sign.

RESULTS

A total of 135 participants were enrolled. The expert panel diagnosed 48 "no" fracture, 52 "buckle" fracture and 35 "other" fracture. All "other" fractures were cortical breach fractures and included 15 Salter-Harris II fractures. The PQH sign demonstrated high sensitivity and moderate specificity to diagnose cortical breach fractures (91%, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 78%-97% and 82%, 73%-88%). Poor sensitivity but high specificity was observed for the visible angulation and periosteal hematoma secondary signs. FPD <1cm showed perfect sensitivity and moderate specificity (100%, 80%-100% and 85%, 78%-90%) for diagnosis of Salter-Harris II fracture. Conversely, physis alteration showed poor sensitivity but excellent specificity (40%, 20%-64% and 99%, 95%-100%) for the diagnosis of Salter-Harris II fractures.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasound secondary signs showed good diagnostic accuracy for both cortical breach fractures and Salter-Harris II fractures. Future research should consider optimal use of secondary signs to improve diagnostic accuracy.

Fracture sonography - Literature review and current recommendations

PURPOSE

Over the course of more than two years, an expert group of 9 professional societies has created the S2e guidelines for fracture sonography. This publication summarizes the key points regarding the individual indications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed, Google Scholar, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from 2000 to March 2021 with evaluation of the literature lists. Randomized controlled clinical trials, observational clinical trials, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews were included. Guidelines, conferences, reviews, case reports, and expert opinions were excluded. Evidence was graded using the SIGN grading system 1999-2012, and the SIGN tables were then presented to the expert group. These were used to develop specific recommendations for the use of fracture sonography. All recommendations were discussed in detail and finally unanimously agreed upon.

RESULTS

Of the 520 primary literature sources found, 182 sources (146 clinical studies and 36 meta-analyses and systematic reviews) were evaluated after screening and content assessment. 21 indications that allow reasonable application of fracture sonography were identified.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasound is a sensible, easy-to-use diagnostic method that is feasible for a large number of indications.

Ultrasound as a Tool for Initial Diagnosis of Bone Lesions in Children Has Good Predictive Values: A Prospective Study From a University Hospital

Pediatric bone injuries are traditionally diagnosed using radiography. However, ultrasonography is emerging as an alternative due to its speed and minimal invasiveness. This study assessed the diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound before radiography in a group of 186 children with suspected long bone fractures at Saint Etienne University Hospital (Saint-Priest-en-Jarez, France). Patients with open trauma and severe deformity were excluded. Ultrasonography demonstrated 88.2% sensitivity and 86.4% specificity, with better results for forearm injuries. Of the 186 cases, 162 were consistent with radiography and 24 varied. Factors influencing an accurate diagnosis included the presence of indirect signs, operator experience, and examination duration, while indirect signs often led to misinterpretation. Although ultrasound cannot completely replace radiography due to its limitations in identifying deeper fractures, this study revealed its substantial efficacy and ease, supporting its potential utility in pediatric trauma emergencies.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Point-of-Care Ultrasound Versus Radiographic Imaging for Pediatric Distal Forearm Fractures: A Randomized Controlled Trial

STUDY OBJECTIVE

In patients aged 5 to 15 years with a clinically nondeformed distal forearm injury presenting to the emergency department (ED), we examined whether point-of-care ultrasound or radiographic imaging had better diagnostic accuracy, with the reference diagnosis determined by an expert panel review.

METHODS

This multicenter, open-label, diagnostic randomized controlled trial was conducted in South East Queensland, Australia. Eligible patients were randomized to receive initial imaging through point-of-care ultrasound performed by an ED clinician or radiograph. Images were defined as "no," "buckle," or "other" fracture by the treating clinician. The primary outcome was the diagnostic accuracy of the treating clinician's interpretation compared against the reference standard diagnosis, which was determined retrospectively by an expert panel consisting of an emergency physician, pediatric radiologist, and pediatric orthopedic surgeon, who reviewed all imaging and follow-up.

RESULTS

Two-hundred and seventy participants were enrolled, with 135 randomized to each initial imaging modality. There were 132 (97.8%) and 112 (83.0%) correctly diagnosed participants by ED clinicians in the point-of-care ultrasound and radiograph groups, respectively (absolute difference [AD]=14.8%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 8.0% to 21.6%; P<.001). Point-of-care ultrasound had better accuracy for participants with "buckle" fractures (AD=18.5%; 95% CI 7.1% to 29.8%) and "other" fractures (AD=17.1%; 95% CI 2.7% to 31.6%). No clinically important fractures were missed in either group.

CONCLUSION

In children and adolescents presenting to the ED with a clinically nondeformed distal forearm injury, clinician-performed (acquired and interpreted) point-of-care ultrasound more accurately identified the correct diagnosis than clinician-interpreted radiographic imaging.

Diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound versus X-ray for distal forearm fractures in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Utilizing ultrasound for the detection of distal forearm fractures in children presents a potential safe and radiation-free alternative compared to X-ray.

METHODS

A systematic review was undertaken to compare the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound in detecting distal forearm fractures in children with X-ray imaging within the period spanning January 2010 to August 2023. The electronic databases MEDLINE and Cochrane CENTRAL were utilized for data retrieval. The QUADAS-2 tool was employed to assess the quality of the included studies. Subsequent statistical analysis was performed to calculate pooled sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, as well as the diagnostic odds ratio.

RESULTS

Our meta-analysis included seventeen studies, encompassing a total of 2003 patients, 2546 ultrasound scans, and 1203 fracture cases as identified by the reference test (X-ray). The pooled sensitivity and specificity were 0.96 (95% CI: 0.93-0.98) and 0.96 (95% CI: 0.89-0.98), respectively. The positive likelihood ratio was 13.40 (95% CI: 7.97-21.50), the negative likelihood ratio was 0.06 (95% CI: 0.04-0.1), and the pooled diagnostic odds ratio was 209 (95% CI: 92.20-412.00). Our statistical analysis revealed low heterogeneity within our studied cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that ultrasound exhibits exceptionally high accuracy in the detection of distal forearm fractures in children and adolescents. It can be employed safely to either confirm or rule out a fracture, thus circumventing the need for potentially harmful radiation exposure in this vulnerable population. Future research endeavors should focus on establishing a universally accepted protocol for training and scanning methods to standardize practices and eliminate disparities in diagnostic procedures.

Point-of-Care Ultrasound (POCUS) for Sideline Youth Sports Coverage

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to discuss the use of point-of-care ultrasound for sideline youth sports coverage.

RECENT FINDINGS

Participation in youth sports has been increasing, with trends that athletes are specializing earlier and competing at higher levels at younger ages (NSCH 2019, Fabricant 2013). Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) utilizes non-invasive imaging to diagnose and manage various musculoskeletal conditions ranging from traumatic injuries, such as fractures and intramuscular hematomas, to early screening for conditions such as asymptomatic knee lesions. Since it is well-tolerated by children and adolescents and allows for easy accessibility for sideline care, POCUS could provide a strong alternative to other imaging modalities such as x-ray and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as both have their limitations. Youth sideline sports coverage could be enhanced with immediate medical attention from ultrasound-trained medical professionals. On the sidelines of a traumatic injury, POCUS expedites patient care with immediate examination of acute injuries. In low resource and hard-to-reach locations such as a rural youth sporting event, it can be key in the triaging of injuries. As a supplement to a physical exam, the risk of a misdiagnosis is reduced, and a long, expensive trip to the hospital for unnecessary imaging studies may be avoided. Ultrasound is a versatile, non-invasive, radiation-free imaging modality that serves as an accessible option for sideline coverage at youth sporting events. Ultrasound is well-tolerated by children and adolescents. It can be used to evaluate, diagnose, and manage a range of musculoskeletal conditions at the sidelines of youth sports.

Effectiveness of ultrasonography performed at the emergency department for pediatric elbow trauma cases

BACKGROUND

Two-way direct radiography is the first-choice imaging method for pediatric patients presenting to the emergency department with elbow trauma. Although, unlike radiography, ultrasonography (US) is not used routinely, studies show that US can be used in the diagnosis of fractures in pediatric patients.

METHODS

In this single-center prospective observational study, patients under the age of 18 who presented to the emergency department after sustaining elbow trauma constituted the population of the study. Findings of the posterior fat pad sign using bedside US and the result obtained by seven-point assessment of the bone cortex were compared with the final diagnosis.

RESULTS

Of the 128 patients enrolled in the study, 6 patients were excluded due to various reasons. Seventy (57.4%) patients were male, and median age was 7.7 years. On examining the final diagnosis of the patients at the emergency department, fracture diagnosis was observed in 39 patients (32%). It was determined that fracture diagnosis for 94.9% of the patients included in the study could be achieved using US (in the presence of at least the fat pad sign and/or direct findings of fracture based on the seven-point assessment).

CONCLUSION

US should be considered as a diagnostic tool in cases of pediatric elbow traumas owing to its high sensitivity and negative predictive value. US, which is reproducible, ionizing radiation-free, and can be performed at the bedside, can considerably reduce unnecessary radiography in low-risk patients when evaluated along with physical examination findings among patients in the pediatric age group presenting with elbow trauma. We believe that the result of our study will contribute to patient care practices.

Ultrasonography or Radiography for Suspected Pediatric Distal Forearm Fractures

BACKGROUND

Data on whether ultrasonography for the initial diagnostic imaging of forearm fractures in children and adolescents is noninferior to radiography for subsequent physical function of the arm are limited.

METHODS

In this open-label, multicenter, noninferiority, randomized trial in Australia, we recruited participants 5 to 15 years of age who presented to the emergency department with an isolated distal forearm injury, without a clinically visible deformity, in whom further evaluation with imaging was indicated. Participants were randomly assigned to initially undergo point-of-care ultrasonography or radiography, and were then followed for 8 weeks. The primary outcome was physical function of the affected arm at 4 weeks as assessed with the use of the validated Pediatric Upper Extremity Short Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) score (range, 8 to 40, with higher scores indicating better function); the noninferiority margin was 5 points.

RESULTS

A total of 270 participants were enrolled, with outcomes for 262 participants (97%) available at 4 weeks (with a window of ±3 days) as prespecified. PROMIS scores at 4 weeks in the ultrasonography group were noninferior to those in the radiography group (mean, 36.4 and 36.3 points, respectively; mean difference, 0.1 point; 95% confidence interval [CI], -1.3 to 1.4). Intention-to-treat analyses (in 266 participants with primary outcome data recorded at any time) produced similar results (mean difference, 0.1 point; 95% CI, -1.3 to 1.4). No clinically important fractures were missed, and there were no between-group differences in the occurrence of adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

In children and adolescents with a distal forearm injury, the use of ultrasonography as the initial diagnostic imaging method was noninferior to radiography with regard to the outcome of physical function of the arm at 4 weeks. (Funded by the Emergency Medicine Foundation and others; BUCKLED Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number, ACTRN12620000637943).

Hip effusions or iliopsoas hematomas on ultrasound in identifying hip fractures in the emergency department

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and likelihood ratios of hip effusion and/or iliopsoas hematoma on point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) performed by ultrasound fellows and fellowship trained emergency providers to identify hip fractures in emergency department (ED) patients with a high suspicion of hip fracture.

METHODS

This was a prospective observational study of a convenience sample of patients with high suspicion of hip fracture at two academic EDs between 2018 and 2021. Patients with negative x-rays who did not receive further imaging with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) were excluded. Sonographers were blinded to clinical data and ED imaging results. At the primary site, 8 ultrasound fellows and 4 emergency ultrasound fellowship-trained emergency providers performed the ultrasonographic examinations. At the secondary site, 2 ultrasound fellows, 4 emergency ultrasound-fellowship trained physicians, and 1 sports medicine fellowship-trained emergency provider performed the ultrasonographic examinations. A positive ultrasound was defined as either the presence of a hip effusion or iliopsoas hematoma on the affected extremity. The primary outcome measures were sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), positive likelihood ratio (LR+), and negative likelihood ratio (LR-) of POCUS findings for identification of a hip fracture compared with a ranked composite reference standard consisting of x-ray, CT, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); the highest-level test performed for each patient was used for comparison.

RESULTS

Among 213 patients analyzed, all 213 received an x-ray, 116 received a CT scan, and 14 received an MRI; 113/213 x-rays (53.1%), 35/116 CT scans (30.2%), and 7/14 MRIs (50.0%) were positive for a hip fracture. A total of 123 patients were diagnosed with a hip fracture (57.7%). There were 13 false negative x-ray results. Overall, compared with the reference standard of x-ray, CT, or MRI, POCUS had a sensitivity of 97% (95% CI: 94%, 100%), specificity of 70% (95% CI: 61%, 79%), PPV of 82% (95% CI: 75%, 88%), and NPV of 94% (95% CI: 88%, 100%) in the identification of hip fractures; with a positive likelihood ratio of 3.22 (95% CI: 2.35, 4.43) and negative likelihood ratio of 0.05 (95% CI: 0.02, 0.12).

CONCLUSION

In a convenience sample of ED patients with high clinical suspicion for hip fracture, the presence of a hip effusion and/or iliopsoas hematoma on POCUS performed by expert emergency ultrasonographers showed high sensitivity in diagnosing patients with a hip fracture.

A Narrative Review of the Uses of Ultrasound in the Evaluation, Analgesia, and Treatment of Distal Forearm Fractures

BACKGROUND

Distal forearm fractures are a commonly encountered injury in the emergency department (ED), accounting for 500,000 to 1.5 million visits and 17% of ED fractures. The evaluation and management of these fractures frequently employs x-ray studies, conscious sedation, closed reduction, and splinting. Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) can offer significant benefit in the diagnosis and management of these common injuries.

OBJECTIVE OF THE REVIEW

To review the clinical utility of POCUS in the diagnosis of distal forearm fractures, as well as to demonstrate the performance of ultrasound-guided analgesia delivery and ultrasound-guided reduction technique.

DISCUSSION

The initial evaluation of forearm injuries frequently includes x-ray studies. However, multiple studies have shown ultrasound to be sensitive and specific for distal radius fractures, with the added value of detecting soft tissue injuries missed by conventional radiography. POCUS may also facilitate analgesia through the use of ultrasound-guided hematoma blocks, which removes the need for conscious sedation prior to manipulation. Finally, POCUS can be used after manipulation to assess cortical realignment of the bone fragments and spare the patient multiple reduction attempts and repeat radiographs.

CONCLUSION

Distal forearm fractures are common, and the emergency physician should be adept with the evaluation and management of these injuries. POCUS can be a reliable modality in the detection of these fractures and can be used to facilitate analgesia and augment success of reduction attempts. These techniques may decrease length of stay, improve patient pain, and decrease reduction attempts.

Non-Inferiority of Point-of-Care Ultrasound Compared to Radiography to Diagnose Upper Extremity Fractures in Children

Conventional X-ray imaging for fracture diagnosis is time-consuming and exposes patients to ionizing radiation. Additionally, the positioning of the injured limb for standardized X-ray imaging is painful. Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is increasingly available in medical offices and emergency rooms. This study aimed to prove the non-inferiority of POCUS compared to X-ray imaging with respect to diagnostic sensitivity, pain, and investigation time in the diagnosis of long-bone fractures of the upper extremity in children. Children and adolescents (1−18 years old) presenting to the UKBB emergency service between May 2020 and May 2021 with suspected upper extremity fracture were included in the study. Before obtaining X-ray images, we conducted a POCUS examination of the injured limb. Pain scores at inclusion as well as maximum pain scores during X-ray and ultrasound examinations were documented. The duration of POCUS and X-ray examinations was compared. We examined 403 children with POCUS and plain X-ray imaging. The mean age (±SD) of the children was 10.6 (±3.5) years. The non-inferiority of POCUS compared to X-ray was confirmed with an estimated sensitivity of 0.95 and a lower confidence interval of 0.93. Maximum pain during POCUS was significantly lower compared to pain at inclusion (p = 0.002) or maximum pain during radiographic examination (p = 0.03). POCUS examination took 3.9 (±2.9) min in the mean whilst the mean duration for obtaining the X-ray images was 16 (±37) min (p < 0.001). POCUS for diagnosing upper extremity fractures in children proved as sensitive as standard X-ray imaging and was significantly faster and less painful. Future prospective studies are required to confirm our findings.

Could Ultrasound Be Used as a Triage Tool in Diagnosing Fractures in Children? A Literature Review

Fracture is one of the most frequent causes of emergency department visits in children, conventional radiography being the standard imaging tool used for following procedures and treatment. This imagistic method is irradiating and harmful, especially for children due to their high cell division rate. For this reason, we searched the literature to see if musculoskeletal ultrasound is a good alternative for diagnostic and follow-up regarding fractures in the pediatric population. After searching the databases using MeSH terms and manual filters, 24 articles that compare X-ray and ultrasound regarding their specificity and sensitivity in diagnosing fractures were included in this study. In the majority of the studied articles, the specificity and sensitivity of ultrasound are around 90–100%, and with high PPVs (positive predictive values) and NPVs (negative predictive values). Although it cannot replace conventional radiography, it is a great complementary tool in fracture diagnosis, having a sensitivity of nearly 100% when combined with clinical suspicion of fracture, compared with X-ray.

Use of Point-of-Care Ultrasound to Identify Occult Fractures of the Tibia in the Pediatric Emergency Department: A Case Series

BACKGROUND

Although point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has been shown to be useful in the identification of both pediatric and adult long-bone fractures in the emergency setting, radiography remains the standard of care. Emergency physicians are often faced with the dilemma of how to evaluate and treat the child with lower leg injury and physical examination concerning for fracture but no readily identifiable fracture line on radiography.

CASE REPORTS

We present four cases in which POCUS was used to diagnose a radiographically occult fracture of the proximal tibia in young children. This is the first case series of occult fracture of the tibia diagnosed with POCUS. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: POCUS can demonstrate evidence of fracture even after unremarkable radiography is obtained, and POCUS findings consistent with fracture might allow for more effective guidance on discharge.

Compliance of functional exercises in school-age children with limb fractures: implication for nursing countermeasures

Background

Functional exercises is very essential to the recovery of patients with fracture. We aimed to evaluate the compliance of functional exercises in school-age children with limb fracture, to provide evidence to the clinical management and nursing care of children with limb fracture.

Methods

School-age children with limb fractures treated in our hospital from January 1, 2020 to June 30, 2021 were selected. The characteristics and postoperative functional exercise compliance of included children were analyzed. Pearson correlation and Logistic regression analysis were conducted to analyze the influencing factors of compliance to functional exercises.

Results

A total of 328 children with limb fracture were included, the incidence of compliance to functional exercise was only 35.98%. Pearson correlation analysis showed that age(r = 0.707), only child of family(r = 0.537), guardians(r = 0.642) and type of temperament(r = 0.635) were correlated with compliance to functional exercises in school-age children with limb fractures (all p < 0.05). Logistic regression analysis indicated that age ≤ 10y (OR2.913, 95%CI2.091 ~ 3.611), only child of family (OR2.006, 95%CI1.683 ~ 2.558), guarded by grandparents (OR1.512, 95%CI1.201 ~ 2.118), non-easy-going temperament (OR4.127, 95%CI3.811 ~ 4.902) were the influencing factors of non-compliance to functional exercises in children with limb fracture (all p < 0.05).

Conclusions

School-age children have poor compliance with functional exercises after limb fractures, and there are many influencing factors. For children with those risks, health care providers should actively intervene in nursing to improve children’s exercise compliance and the rehabilitation effect.

Racial Disparity in Pediatric Radiography for Forearm Fractures

Introduction: The most common pediatric fractures involve the upper extremity. But there is limited study on racial disparity in diagnostic radiography for pediatric fractures. The literature has described the diagnostic accuracy of alternative diagnostic modalities with promising evidence of its ability to mitigate health inequity in primary care. Our objective was to understand if racial disparity exists in radiography for pediatric fractures.

Methods: In this four-year retrospective cohort study, we analyzed rates of radiographic imaging and abnormal radiograph detection in 4280 pediatric patients (ages 3-18 years) who presented with chief complaints of arm or wrist pain and trauma-related International Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) codes. We compared White children to all other races and stratified by emergency departments (ED) vs all other primary care ambulatory service lines. 

Results: Non-White patients had lower imaging rate differences and lower odds receiving imaging in both ambulatory settings (0.65915, P = 0.0162; -5.4%, P = 0.0143) and in EDs (0.7732, P = 0.0369; -4.7%, P = 0.0368). Additionally, non-Whites in the ED had lower rates and lower odds of abnormal radiographs (-7.3%, P = 0.0084; 0.6794, P = 0.0089). 

Conclusion: Non-White patients seen in emergency and ambulatory settings had lower imaging rates for traumatic arm and wrist pain compared to White patients, indicating a healthcare disparity in pediatric imaging. Higher-level studies investigating the effect of social determinants of health, more detailed patient data, and provider bias on facture care equity are needed to understand underlying reasons for observed differences.

The EFSUMB Guidelines and Recommendations for Musculoskeletal Ultrasound - Part I: Extraarticular Pathologies

The first part of the guidelines and recommendations for musculoskeletal ultrasound, produced under the auspices of the European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB), provides information about the use of musculoskeletal ultrasound for assessing extraarticular structures (muscles, tendons, entheses, ligaments, bones, bursae, fasciae, nerves, skin, subcutaneous tissues, and nails) and their pathologies. Clinical applications, practical points, limitations, and artifacts are described and discussed for every structure. After an extensive literature review, the recommendations have been developed according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine and GRADE criteria and the consensus level was established through a Delphi process. The document is intended to guide clinical users in their daily practice.

[Fracture sonography of the extremities]

In this article the basic principles of fracture sonography and meaningful areas of application in children and adults are explained. The sonographic fracture signs are presented and the typical areas of application, i.e. clavicular fracture, acromioclavicular (AC) joint dislocation, proximal humerus fracture, elbow fracture, wrist fracture, metacarpal 5 fracture, palmar plate, femoral bulge fracture, proximal tibia fracture, midfoot V fracture, toddler's fracture and march fracture, are outlined and known diagnostic algorithms are listed. When used correctly, fracture sonography is a safe, gentle and rapid diagnostic method.

Bedside Ultrasound Conducted in Kids with distal upper Limb fractures in the Emergency Department (BUCKLED): a protocol for an open-label non-inferiority diagnostic randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Children frequently present to the emergency department (ED) with forearm injuries and often have x-rays to determine if there is a fracture. Bedside ultrasound, also known as point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS), is an alternative diagnostic test used to rapidly diagnose a fracture at the time of examination, without exposing children to ionising radiation. Prospective studies have demonstrated high agreement between POCUS and x-ray findings. However, whether the initial imaging modality affects the patient's medium-term physical function is unknown.

METHODS

This is a multicentre, open-label, non-inferiority randomised controlled trial conducted in Australian EDs. Recruitment will continue until 112 children with distal forearm injuries (including 48 buckle fractures) per trial arm have achieved the primary outcome measure. Patients aged 5-15 years presenting with an isolated, acute, clinically non-angulated, distal forearm injury with suspected fracture will have their initial diagnostic approach randomised to either POCUS, performed by a credentialled practitioner, or x-ray imaging. If a cortical breach fracture is identified on POCUS, the patient will receive x-rays and have usual care. If a buckle fracture is identified, the patient will have their forearm placed in a splint and be discharged home. Patients will be followed up at 1, 4 and 8 weeks. The primary outcome is upper limb physical function at 4 weeks, as determined by the Pediatric Upper Extremity Short Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) tool. Secondary outcomes include healthcare costs, satisfaction, pain, complications, rates of imaging, ED length of stay and diagnostic accuracy.

DISCUSSION

If POCUS is non-inferior to x-ray in terms of patient's medium-term physical function, it may have an effect on overall health care resource use, including the number of x-ray performed and earlier ED discharge. Although prospective studies have confirmed the accuracy of POCUS, this will be the first RCT to assess non-inferiority of functional outcomes of POCUS to diagnose non-angulated paediatric distal forearm injuries, compared to x-ray. POCUS may be of particular importance in settings where access to x-ray imaging can be limited either during or after-hours, as it can aid the triaging and management of patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Prospectively registered with the ANZCTR on 29 May 2020 ( ACTRN12620000637943 ).

Diagnostic accuracy of ultrasonography for diagnosis of elbow fractures in children

BACKGROUND

Elbow injuries and fractures are a common pathology in the pediatric emergency unit. X-ray and CT scan of the elbow are the standard diagnostic procedures, which increase exposure to radiation in children. Previous studies have shown that fractures can also be visualized by ultrasound (US); thus, this study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of elbow US compared with radiography for the diagnosis of elbow fracture in children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a prospective observational study of patients aged 2-14 years that presented to emergency departments with a suspected elbow fracture requiring radiographic evaluation. Elbow US for diagnosing elevated posterior fat pad or lipohemarthrosis was performed. All patients underwent elbow radiography and received clinical follow-up. Initial or follow-up X-ray or CT scan was used as the reference standard for fracture diagnosis.

RESULTS

Seventy-five patients with a mean age of 6.51 ± 3.68 years were enrolled in the study. Twenty-eight (37.3%) patients had positive results for fracture. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of US in the diagnosis of elbow fractures were 92.9% (95% CI 76.5-99.1%), 89.4% (95% CI 76.9-96.5%) and 90.7% (95% CI 81.7-96.2%). In patients with fracture, US demonstrated a lipohaemarthrosis in 20 patients (71.4%), elevated posterior fat pad in 19 patients (67.9%), cortical disruption in 10 patients (35.7%), and effusion in three patients (10.7%).

CONCLUSION

Our results showed high diagnostic accuracy for the ultrasonography diagnosis of an elbow fracture, which allows us to confirm ultrasonography imaging of the elbow as a safe alternative in the primary evaluation of pediatric elbow injuries.

The Child With a Painful Arm: A POCUS Screening Protocol to Identify Fracture in Children With Upper Extremity Injury

BACKGROUND

Young children present frequently to the emergency department with an immobile, painful arm. It is often difficult to discern a point of tenderness in a frightened, injured child. Common approaches included sending the child for x-ray studies of the extremity or empirically attempting reduction of radial head subluxation. We created a step-by-step point-of-care ultrasound screening protocol of the upper extremity to increase or decrease the probability of fracture before x-ray study or reduction.

CASE REPORT

We present the cases of 6 children younger than 4 years without a clear history of pulled elbow and without swelling or deformity on examination, for whom this protocol revealed fracture or lowered the probability of fracture, thereby increasing the safety of radial head reduction. WHY SHOULD AN EMERGENCY PHYSICIAN BE AWARE OF THIS?: In most cases, identification of a single fracture on ultrasound allows for focused x-ray study on the area of fracture. Children with a normal ultrasound screen can undergo reduction of radial head subluxation safely.