Oncostatin M is a growth factor for Ewing sarcoma

Evaluating the IL-6 Family of Cytokines Throughout Equine Gestation

INTRODUCTION

The interleukin (IL)-6 family of cytokines is grouped by a common receptor subunit (gp130), but functions in distinct but overlapping physiological activities, including regulation of acute phase reaction and the balance between effector and regulatory T cell populations-both of which play a role in successful pregnancy maturation.

METHODS

Here, we aim to assess the expression profiles of members of the IL-6 cytokine family throughout equine gestation. To do so, RNA Sequencing was performed on chorioallantois and endometrium of mares at 120, 180, 300, and 330 days of gestation (n = 4/stage), as well as 45-day chorioallantois (n = 4) and diestrus endometrium (n = 3). Expression levels of members of the IL-6 cytokine family including ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), cardiotrophin 1 (CT-1), cardiotrophin-like cytokine factor 1 (CLCF1), galectin-10, oncostatin M (OSM), and IL-6, -11, and -27 were evaluated in addition to the receptors for IL-6 (IL-6R) and the common receptor subunit gp130. Additionally, peripheral concentration of IL-6 was assessed.

RESULTS

In the chorioallantois, differential expression of IL-6, IL-11, CNTF, CLCF1, OSM, and CT-1 was noted. In the endometrium, the gestational age of pregnancy impacted the expression of IL-11, CNTF, and CT-1. Circulatory IL-6 concentrations reached their highest concentrations at 120 days, with lesser concentrations noted at 45, 180, 300, and 330 days. Both IL-6R and gp130 altered in expression throughout equine gestation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, members of the IL-6 cytokine family appear to fluctuate constantly throughout equine pregnancy, with varying expression profiles noted when comparing individual members. Additionally, different expression profiles were noted when comparing chorioallantois, endometrium, and circulation, indicating that the function of the cytokine is tissue-specific.

Hypoxia-induced ALKBH5 aggravates synovial aggression and inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis by regulating the m6A modification of CH25H

Previous studies have shown that epigenetic factors are involved in the occurrence and development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the role of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation in RA has not been determined. The aim of this study was to investigate the role and regulatory mechanisms of hypoxia-induced expression of the m6A demethylase alkB homolog 5 (ALKBH5) in RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs). Synovial tissues were collected from RA and osteoarthritis (OA) patients, and RA FLSs were obtained. ALKBH5 expression in RA FLSs and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model rats was determined using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR), western blotting and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Using ALKBH5 overexpression and knockdown, we determined the role of ALKBH5 in RA FLS aggression and inflammation. The role of ALKBH5 in RA FLS regulation was explored using m6A-methylated RNA sequencing and methylated RNA immunoprecipitation coupled with quantitative real-time PCR. The expression of ALKBH5 was increased in RA synovial tissues, CIA model rats and RA FLSs, and a hypoxic environment increased the expression of ALKBH5 in FLSs. Increased expression of ALKBH5 promoted the proliferation and migration of RA-FLSs and inflammation. Conversely, decreased ALKBH5 expression inhibited the migration of RA-FLSs and inflammation. Mechanistically, hypoxia-induced ALKBH5 expression promoted FLS aggression and inflammation by regulating CH25H mRNA stability. Our study elucidated the functional roles of ALKBH5 and mRNA m6A methylation in RA and revealed that the HIF1α/2α-ALKBH5-CH25H pathway may be key for FLS aggression and inflammation. This study provides a novel approach for the treatment of RA by targeting the HIF1α/2α-ALKBH5-CH25H pathway.

Interleukin-6 Family of Cytokines in Cancers

Nine soluble ligands [interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-11 (IL-11), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), oncostatin M (OSM), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1), cardiotrophin-like cytokine, interleukin-27 (IL-27), and interleukin-31] share the ubiquitously expressed transmembrane protein-glycoprotein-130 beta-subunit (gp130) and thus form IL-6 family cytokines. Proteins that may be important for cancerogenesis, CT-1, IL-11, IL-27, LIF, OSM, and CNTF, belong to the superfamily of IL-6. Cytokines such as IL-6, IL-11, and IL-27 are better investigated in comparison with other members of the same family of cytokines, eg, CT-1. Gp130 is one of the main receptors through which these cytokines exert their effects. The clinical implication of understanding the pathways of these cytokines in oncology is that targeted therapy to inhibit or potentiate cytokine activity may lead to remission in some cases.

The clinical relevance of OSM in inflammatory diseases: a comprehensive review

Oncostatin M (OSM) is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in a variety of inflammatory responses such as wound healing, liver regeneration, and bone remodeling. As a member of the interleukin-6 (IL-6) family of cytokines, OSM binds the shared receptor gp130, recruits either OSMRβ or LIFRβ, and activates a variety of signaling pathways including the JAK/STAT, MAPK, JNK, and PI3K/AKT pathways. Since its discovery in 1986, OSM has been identified as a significant contributor to a multitude of inflammatory diseases, including arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, lung and skin disease, cardiovascular disease, and most recently, COVID-19. Additionally, OSM has also been extensively studied in the context of several cancer types including breast, cervical, ovarian, testicular, colon and gastrointestinal, brain,lung, skin, as well as other cancers. While OSM has been recognized as a significant contributor for each of these diseases, and studies have shown OSM inhibition is effective at treating or reducing symptoms, very few therapeutics have succeeded into clinical trials, and none have yet been approved by the FDA for treatment. In this review, we outline the role OSM plays in a variety of inflammatory diseases, including cancer, and outline the previous and current strategies for developing an inhibitor for OSM signaling.

Oncostatin M: Risks and Benefits of a Novel Therapeutic Target for Atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of death worldwide. It is predicted that approximately 23.6 million people will die from CVDs annually by 2030. Therefore, there is a great need for an effective therapeutic approach to combat this disease. The European Cardiovascular Target Discovery (CarTarDis) consortium identified Oncostatin M (OSM) as a potential therapeutic target for atherosclerosis. The benefits of modulating OSM - an interleukin (IL)-6 family cytokine - have since been studied for multiple indications. However, as decades of high attrition rates have stressed, the success of a drug target is determined by the fine balance between benefits and the risk of adverse events. Safety issues should therefore not be overlooked.

OBJECTIVE

In this review, a risk/benefit analysis is performed on OSM inhibition in the context of atherosclerosis treatment. First, OSM signaling characteristics and its role in atherosclerosis are described. Next, an overview of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical findings relating to both the benefits and risks of modulating OSM in major organ systems is provided. Based on OSM's biological function and expression profile as well as drug intervention studies, safety concerns of inhibiting this target have been identified, assessed, and ranked for the target population.

CONCLUSION

While OSM may be of therapeutic value in atherosclerosis, drug development should also focus on de-risking the herein identified major safety concerns: tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, bleeding, anemia, and NMDA- and glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Close monitoring and/or exclusion of patients with various comorbidities may be required for optimal therapeutic benefit.

Murine Oncostatin M Has Opposing Effects on the Proliferation of OP9 Bone Marrow Stromal Cells and NIH/3T3 Fibroblasts Signaling through the OSMR

The IL-6 family cytokine Oncostatin M (OSM) is involved in cell development, growth, hematopoiesis, inflammation, and cancer. Intriguingly, OSM has proliferative and antiproliferative effects depending on the target cell. The molecular mechanisms underlying these opposing effects are not fully understood. Previously, we found OSM upregulation in different myeloproliferative syndromes. However, OSM receptor (OSMR) expression was detected on stromal cells but not the malignant cells themselves. In the present study, we, therefore, investigated the effect of murine OSM (mOSM) on proliferation in stromal and fibroblast cell lines. We found that mOSM impairs the proliferation of bone marrow (BM) stromal cells, whereas fibroblasts responded to mOSM with increased proliferation. When we set out to reveal the mechanisms underlying these opposing effects, we detected increased expression of the OSM receptors OSMR and LIFR in stromal cells. Interestingly, Osmr knockdown and Lifr overexpression attenuated the OSM-mediated effect on proliferation in both cell lines indicating that mOSM affected the proliferation signaling mainly through the OSMR. Furthermore, mOSM induced activation of the JAK-STAT, PI3K-AKT, and MAPK-ERK pathways in OP9 and NIH/3T3 cells with differences in total protein levels between the two cell lines. Our findings offer new insights into the regulation of proliferation by mOSM.

Oncostatin M: A mysterious cytokine in cancers

Oncostatin M (OSM), as a member of the Interleukin-6 family cytokines, plays a significant role in inflammation, autoimmunity, and cancers. It is mainly secreted by T lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages and was initially introduced as anti-cancer agent. However, in some cases, it promotes cancer progression. Overexpression of OSM and OSM receptor has been detected in various cancers including colon cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, myeloma, brain tumors, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and hepatoblastoma. STAT3 is the main downstream signaling molecule of OSM, which operates the leading role in modifications of cancer cells and enhancing cell growth, invasion, survival, and all other hallmarks of cancer cells. However, due to the presence of multiple signaling pathways, it can act contradictory in some cancers. In this review, we will discuss the emerging roles of OSM in cancer and elucidate its function in tumor control or progression and finally discuss therapeutic approaches designed to manipulate this cytokine in cancer.

The Role of Tyrosine Kinases as a Critical Prognostic Parameter and Its Targeted Therapies in Ewing Sarcoma

Ewing sarcoma (ES) is a rare, highly aggressive, bone, or soft tissue-associated tumor. Although this sarcoma often responds well to initial chemotherapy, 40% of the patients develop a lethal recurrence of the disease, with death recorded in 75-80% of patients with metastatic ES within 5 years, despite receiving high-dose chemotherapy. ES is genetically well-characterized, as indicated by the EWS-FLI1 fusion protein encoded as a result of chromosomal translocation in 80-90% of patients with ES, as well as in ES-related cancer cell lines. Recently, tyrosine kinases have been identified in the pathogenesis of ES. These tyrosine kinases, acting as oncoproteins, are associated with the clinical pathogenesis, metastasis, acquisition of self-renewal traits, and chemoresistance of ES, through the activation of various intracellular signaling pathways. This review describes the recent progress related to cellular and molecular functional roles of tyrosine kinases in the progression of ES.

Oncostatin M as a new diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic target in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

Introduction: Given the high rate of primary and acquired resistance to current inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) treatments, novel drug targets and biomarkers that aid in therapeutic prediction are eagerly awaited. Furthermore, postponing treatment initiation because of a diagnostic delay profoundly affects patient well-being and overall disease evolution. Among the emerging targets and biomarkers, oncostatin M (OSM) has gained much interest in the past few years.Areas covered: A literature search to June 2019 was performed to identify the most relevant reports on Oncostatin M. The authors summarize the biology of OSM, its role in health and disease, its potential as a diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic biomarker in the field of IBD and how it might be a drug target of the future.Expert opinion: OSM has diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic capabilities. High mucosal OSM predicts primary non-response to anti-TNF antibodies. However, one could question whether a single cytokine can capture the complexity and heterogeneity of IBD. Neutralizing OSM in patients with elevated mucosal OSM appears to be attractive and should be considered as a valid option for the first biomarker-stratified, proof-of-concept trial that studies a novel therapeutic compound in IBD.

The role of oncostatin M receptor gene polymorphisms in bladder cancer

Background

Oncostatin M receptor (OSMR) represents a part of the interleukin-six (IL6) cytokine group that was discovered recently to be closely associated with cell’s growth and differentiation, inflammation, and enhancement of metastatic capacity. A comprehensive study suggests a close relationship between OSMR and papillary thyroid cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, and other tumors. However, the relationship between OSMR and bladder cancer has yet to be determined.

Methods

Three hundred six patients (including 142 patients with muscle-invasive bladder cancer and 164 patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer) as well as 459 normal controls were included in this study. Two tag SNPs of OSMR, rs2278329, and rs2292016 were genotyped by TaqMan® SNP Genotyping Assay method and then the associations with bladder cancer were analyzed, as well as risk factors and prognosis.

Results

Patients with bladder cancer and controls did not differ significantly in terms of genotype frequencies and allele frequency distribution of rs2278329 (P = 0.77, OR = 0.97) and rs2292016 (P = 0.39, OR = 1.20) respectively. For rs2278329, no differences were found in terms of risk factors in stratified analyses. However, rs2292016 was associated with recurrence and tumor grade. GT/TT was found to increase the risk of relapse compared to the patients without allele T (GG genotype) (P = 0.016, OR = 1.878, 95% CI = 1.12–3.14) with the T allele of rs2292016 being a risk factor for recurrence (P = 0.032, OR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.47–0.97). Besides, patients with GT genotype often present with high-grade bladder cancer (P = 0.003, OR = 2.33, 95% CI = 1.32–4.17). Multiple Cox regression analysis showed that rs2278329 and rs2292016 were related to the recurrence-free survival and overall survival in non muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) patients. For rs2278329, GA genotype could affect recurrence-free survival (P = 0.01, OR = 2.16, 95% CI = 1.17–3.98). For rs2292016, TT/GT genotype had a lower risk of death compared with GG homozygote genotype, and T was a protective factor for overall survival in bladder cancer (P = 0.029, OR = 0.22, 95% CI = 0.06–0.86).

Conclusions

OSMR genotype frequencies were found to be associated with higher recurrence in bladder cancer, and it may serve as a biomarker candidate gene to predict prognosis of this disease. Further validation of OSMR as biomarker is required.

IL-6 and ovarian cancer: inflammatory cytokines in promotion of metastasis

Ovarian cancer is the most fatal gynecological cancer in the USA and the fifth most common cancer-related cause of death in women. Inflammation has been shown to play many roles in ovarian cancer tumor growth, with the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) having been established as a key immunoregulatory cytokine. Ovarian cancer cells continuously secrete cytokines that promote tumorigenicity in both autocrine and paracrine fashions while also receiving signals from the tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME contains many cells including leukocytes and fibroblasts, which respond to proinflammatory cytokines and secrete their own cytokines, which can produce many effects including promotion of chemoresistance, resistance to apoptosis, invasion, angiogenesis by way of overexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor, and promotion of metastatic growth at distant sites. IL-6 and its proinflammatory family members, including oncostatin M, have been found to directly stimulate enhanced invasion of cancer cells through basement membrane degradation caused by the overexpression of matrix metalloproteinases, stimulate promotion of cell cycle, enhance resistance to chemotherapy, and cause epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). IL-6 has been shown to activate signaling pathways that lead to tumor proliferation, the most studied of which being the Janus kinase (JAK) and STAT3 pathway. IL-6-induced JAK/STAT activation leads to constitutive activation of STAT3, which has been correlated with enhanced tumor cell growth and resistance to chemotherapy. IL-6 has also been shown to act as a trigger of the EMT, the hypothesized first step in the metastatic cascade. Understanding the important role of IL-6 and its family members' effects on the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer tumor growth and metastasis may lead to more novel treatments, detection methods, and improvement of overall clinical outcomes.

IL-6 family cytokines: Key inflammatory mediators as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets

IL-6 is a critical cytokine in acute phase response and involved in the pathogenesis of several chronic inflammatory diseases including cancer. Studies have highlighted that levels of IL-6 and its family members can be useful for diagnosis, prognosis of relapse-free survival and recurrence. IL-6 family cytokines have been identified as cancer biomarkers through screening of inflammatory mediators in different fluids including saliva, serum, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). IL-6 can be modulated by chemopreventive drugs, small molecules, monoclonal antibodies and immune checkpoint inhibitors. Unveiling the different sources of IL-6, the interaction between IL-6 and its cellular targets, the IL-6-dependent tumor resistance mechanisms, and the identification of novel regulators of IL-6 are some of the highly complex topics included in this review and their understanding could aid cancer biomarkers and therapy development.

Oncostatin M suppresses metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma by inhibiting SLUG expression through coordination of STATs and PIASs signalings

Oncostatin M (OSM) is linked with multiple biological responses including growth and differentiation. Previous reports showed inhibitory effects of OSM in tumor progression while others showed promoting effects. The dual role of OSM in the development of various cancers is still unclear. We previously described OSM-mediated SLUG suppression, leading to repressed metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma (LAC) cells. However, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here, we showed that OSM suppresses SLUG express in LAC cells through a STAT1-dependent transcriptional inhibition. Knockdown of STAT1 reversed the OSM-suppressed SLUG expression and rescued the OSM-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, as well as pulmonary metastasis in vivo. STAT1 suppressed SLUG transcription through binding to its promoter region in response to OSM. Furthermore, PIAS4, a co-repressor of STAT, and HDAC1 were able to bind to STAT1 on SLUG promoter region, resulting in reduced H3K9 acetylation and suppressed SLUG expression upon OSM treatment. In contrast, PIAS3 bound to activated STAT3, another effector of OSM, in response to OSM and blocked the binding of STAT3 to SLUG promoter region, preventing STAT3-dependent activation of SLUG transcription. Our findings suggested that OSM suppresses SLUG expression and tumor metastasis of LAC through inducing the inhibitory effect of the STAT1-dependent pathway and suppressing the activating effect of STAT3-dependent signaling. These results can serve as a scientific basis for the potential therapeutic intervention of OSM in cancer cells.

miR-143-3p inhibits the proliferation, migration and invasion in osteosarcoma by targeting FOSL2

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common type of primary malignant bone tumor and mainly occurs in children and adolescent. Because of its early migration and invasion, OS has a poor prognosis. It has been reported that mircoRNAs (miRNAs) play a crucial role in the occurrence and development of multiple tumors. In this study, we identified the aberrant-expression of miR-143-3p in osteosarcoma and examined the role of miR-143-3p in OS development. Further, we searched the miR-143-3p target gene and verified its accuracy by luciferase experiments. Finally, we explored the relationship between miR-143-3p and FOS-Like antigen 2 (FOSL2). Our data indicated that miR-143-3p expression was substantially lower in OS tissues and cell-line compared with normal tissues, and was lower in patients with poor prognosis. In addition miR-143-3p inhibited OS cell proliferation and metastasis while promoting apoptosis. We next showed that FOSL2 was directly targeted by miR-143-3p and could reverse the inhibition caused by miR-143-3p. Finally, we found FOSL2 expression in OS cells was significantly higher compared with normal cells and negatively correlated with miR-143-3p. Thus, miR-143-3p directly and negatively targets FOSL2 to affect OS characteristics. This provides a new target for the treatment of OS and deserves further study.

JAK1/STAT3 Activation through a Proinflammatory Cytokine Pathway Leads to Resistance to Molecularly Targeted Therapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Molecularly targeted drugs have yielded significant therapeutic advances in oncogene-driven non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but a majority of patients eventually develop acquired resistance. Recently, the relation between proinflammatory cytokine IL6 and resistance to targeted drugs has been reported. We investigated the functional contribution of IL6 and the other members of IL6 family proinflammatory cytokine pathway to resistance to targeted drugs in NSCLC cells. In addition, we examined the production of these cytokines by cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF). We also analyzed the prognostic significance of these molecule expressions in clinical NSCLC samples. In NSCLC cells with acquired resistance to targeted drugs, we observed activation of the IL6-cytokine pathway and STAT3 along with epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) features. In particular, IL6 family cytokine oncostatin-M (OSM) induced a switch to the EMT phenotype and protected cells from targeted drug-induced apoptosis in OSM receptors (OSMRs)/JAK1/STAT3-dependent manner. The cross-talk between NSCLC cells and CAFs also preferentially activated the OSM/STAT3 pathway via a paracrine mechanism and decreased sensitivity to targeted drugs. The selective JAK1 inhibitor filgotinib effectively suppressed STAT3 activation and OSMR expression, and cotargeting inhibition of the oncogenic pathway and JAK1 reversed resistance to targeted drugs. In the analysis of clinical samples, OSMR gene expression appeared to be associated with worse prognosis in patients with surgically resected lung adenocarcinoma. Our data suggest that the OSMRs/JAK1/STAT3 axis contributes to resistance to targeted drugs in oncogene-driven NSCLC cells, implying that this pathway could be a therapeutic target. Mol Cancer Ther; 16(10); 2234-45. ©2017 AACR.

IL-38 overexpression induces anti-inflammatory effects in mice arthritis models and in human macrophages in vitro

OBJECTIVES

Interleukin (IL)-38 is a newly characterised cytokine that belongs to the IL-1 family. This cytokine is expressed in the rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial tissue and IL-38 deficient mice have exacerbated arthritis. Here, we analysed the effect of IL-38 overexpression in the joints of arthritic mice, in human macrophages and synovial fibroblasts in vitro.

METHODS

Articular injections of an adeno-associated virus (AAV) 2/8 encoding IL-38 were performed in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), K/BxN serum transfer-induced arthritis (STIA) and antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) in mice. The effect of IL-38 overexpression was evaluated through clinical scores, immunohistochemistry, microCT, Luminex and RT-qPCR analysis. THP-1 macrophages were transduced with a lentiviral vector to overexpress IL-38.

RESULTS

Clinical inflammatory scores were significantly decreased after AAV IL-38 injection in joints of mice with CIA and STIA, but not AIA. This decrease was accompanied by reduced macrophage infiltration and a decreased expression of Th17 cytokines (IL-17, IL-23, IL-22) and TNFα. However, IL-38 overexpression had no effect on cartilage or bone destruction. In vitro, the THP-1 monocytic cell line expressed less IL-6, TNFα and IL-23 after IL-38 overexpression. Conditioned media from these cells, containing released IL-38, also exert an anti-inflammatory effect on human primary macrophages and synovial fibroblasts from patients with RA.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows for the first time that IL-38 overexpression attenuates the severity of experimental arthritis. IL-38 may exert its anti-inflammatory effects by decreasing the production of proinflammatory cytokines by macrophages and synovial fibroblasts. This effect can lead to the development of novel treatment strategies in arthritis.

Effect of human papillomavirus 16 oncoproteins on oncostatin M upregulation in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection modulates several host cytokines contributing to cancer development. Oncostatin M (OSM), an IL-6 family cytokine, acts to promote cell senescence and inhibit growth. Its dysregulation promotes cell survival, cell proliferation and metastasis in various malignancies. The effect of HPV on OSM dysregulation has not been investigated. To elucidate this, immunohistochemistry was used on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) tissues: HPV-positive (50) and HPV-negative (50) cases. Immortalized human cervical keratinocytes expressing HPV16E6 (HCK1T, Tet-On system) were used to demonstrate the role of HPV16E6 in OSM expression. In addition, a vector containing HPV16E6/E7 was transiently transfected into oral cancer cell lines. Cell viability, cell-cycle progression and cell migration were evaluated using flow cytometry and a wound healing assay, respectively. The results showed various intensities of OSM expression in OSCC. Interestingly, the median percentages of strongly stained cells were significantly higher in HPV-positive OSCCs than in HPV-negative OSCCs. To explore the role of HPV oncoproteins on OSM expression, the expression of HPV16E6 in the HCK1T Tet-On condition was induced by doxycycline and HPV16E6 was found to significantly upregulate levels of OSM mRNA and protein, with concomitant upregulation of c-Myc. In addition, the levels of OSM mRNA and protein in E6/E7 transiently transfected oral cancer cells also gradually increased in a time-dependent manner and these transfected cells showed greater viability and higher migration rates and cell-cycle progression than controls. This result demonstrates that HPV16 oncoproteins upregulate OSM and play an important role to promote OSCC development.

JAK-STAT signaling in cancer: From cytokines to non-coding genome

In the past decades, studies of the Janus kinases (JAKs) and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) signaling have uncovered highly conserved programs linking cytokine signaling to the regulation of essential cellular mechanisms such as proliferation, invasion, survival, inflammation and immunity. Inhibitors of the JAK/STAT pathway are used for treatment of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis or psoriasis. Aberrant JAK/STAT signaling has been identified to contribute to cancer progression and metastatic development. Targeting of JAK/STAT pathway is currently one of the most promising therapeutic strategies in prostate cancer (PCa), hematopoietic malignancies and sarcomas. Notably, newly identified regulators of JAK/STAT signaling, the non-coding RNAs transcripts and their role as important targets and potential clinical biomarkers are highlighted in this review. In addition to the established role of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in traditional cytokine signaling the non-coding RNAs add yet another layer of hidden regulation and function. Understanding the crosstalk of non-coding RNA with JAK/STAT signaling in cancer is of critical importance and may result in better patient stratification not only in terms of prognosis but also in the context of therapy.

Stabilization of Oncostatin-M mRNA by Binding of Nucleolin to a GC-Rich Element in Its 3'UTR

Oncostatin-M (OSM) is a patho-physiologically important pleiotropic, multifunctional cytokine. OSM mRNA sequence analysis revealed that its 3'UTR contains three highly conserved GC-rich cis-elements (GCREs) whose role in mRNA stability is unidentified. In the present study, the functional role of the proximal GC-rich region of osm 3'-UTR (GCRE-1) in post-transcriptional regulation of osm expression in U937 cells was assessed by transfecting construct containing GCRE-1 at 3'-end of a fairly stable reporter gene followed by analysis of the expression of the reporter. GCRE-1 showed mRNA destabilizing activity; however, upon PMA treatment the reporter message containing GCRE-1 was stabilized. This stabilization is owing to a time-dependent progressive binding of trans-factors (at least five proteins) to GCRE-1 post-PMA treatment. Nucleolin was identified as one of the proteins in the RNP complex of GCRE-1 with PMA-treated U937 cytosolic extracts by oligo-dT affinity chromatography of poly-adenylated GCRE-1. Immuno-blot revealed time-dependent enhancement of nucleolin in the cytoplasm which in turn directly binds GCRE-1. RNA co-immunoprecipitation confirmed the GCRE-1-nucleolin interaction in vivo. To elucidate the functional role of nucleolin in stabilization of osm mRNA, nucleolin was overexpressed in U937 cells and found to stabilize the intrinsic osm mRNA, where co-transfection with the reporter containing GCRE-1 confirms the role of GCRE-1 in stabilization of the reporter mRNA. Thus, in conclusion, the results asserted that PMA treatment in U937 cells leads to cytoplasmic translocation of nucleolin that directly binds GCRE-1, one of the major GC-rich instability elements, thereby stabilizing the osm mRNA.

Knock-Down of Endogenous Bornavirus-Like Nucleoprotein 1 Inhibits Cell Growth and Induces Apoptosis in Human Oligodendroglia Cells

Endogenous bornavirus-like nucleoprotein elements (EBLNs) have been discovered in the genomes of various animals including humans, whose functions have been seldom studied. To explore the biological functions of human EBLNs, we constructed a lentiviral vector expressing a short-hairpin RNA against human EBLN1, which successfully inhibited EBLN1 expression by above 80% in infected human oligodendroglia cells (OL cells). We found that EBLN1 silencing suppressed cell proliferation, induced G2/M phase arrest, and promoted apoptosis in OL cells. Gene expression profiling demonstrated that 1067 genes were up-regulated, and 2004 were down-regulated after EBLN1 silencing. The top 10 most upregulated genes were PI3, RND3, BLZF1, SOD2, EPGN, SBSN, INSIG1, OSMR, CREB3L2, and MSMO1, and the top 10 most-downregulated genes were KRTAP2-4, FLRT2, DIDO1, FAT4, ESCO2, ZNF804A, SUV420H1, ZC3H4, YAE1D1, and NCOA5. Pathway analysis revealed that these differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in pathways related to the cell cycle, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, p53 signaling, and apoptosis. The gene expression profiles were validated by using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for detecting these 20 most-changed genes. Three genes closely related to glioma, RND3, OSMR, and CREB3L2, were significantly upregulated and might be the key factors in EBLN1 regulating the proliferation and apoptosis of OL cells. This study provides evidence that EBLN1 plays a key role in regulating cell life and death, thereby opening several avenues of investigation regarding EBLN1 in the future.

IL6 secreted by Ewing sarcoma tumor microenvironment confers anti-apoptotic and cell-disseminating paracrine responses in Ewing sarcoma cells

Background

The prognosis of patients with Ewing sarcoma (ES) has improved over the course of the last decades. However, those patients suffering from metastatic and recurrent ES still have only poor chances of survival and require new therapeutic approaches. Interleukin-6 (IL6) is a pleiotropic cytokine expressed by immune cells and a great variety of cancer cells. It induces inflammatory responses, enhances proliferation and inhibits apoptosis in cancer cells, thereby promoting chemoresistance.

Methods

We investigated expression of IL6, its receptors and the IL6 signal transduction pathway in ES tumor samples and cell lines applying reverse transcriptase PCR, immunoblot and immunohistochemistry. The impact of IL6 on cell viability and apoptosis in ES cell lines was analyzed by MTT and propidium iodide staining, migration assessed by chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay.

Results

Immunohistochemistry proved IL6 expression in the stroma of ES tumor samples. IL6 receptor subunits IL6R and IL6ST were expressed on the surface of ES cells. Treatment of ES cells with rhIL6 resulted in phosphorylation of STAT3. rhIL6 protected ES cells from serum starvation-induced apoptosis and promoted migration. IL6 blood serum levels were elevated in a subgroup of ES patients with poor prognosis.

Conclusions

These data suggest that IL6 contributes to ES tumor progression by increasing resistance to apoptosis in conditions of cellular stress, such as serum starvation, and by promotion of metastasis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-015-1564-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Experimental studies on the inhibition of adenovirus-ING4-OSM therapy on nasopharyngeal carcinoma proliferation in vitro and in vivo

In the present study, the effects of the co-transfer of the tumor growth inhibitor 4 gene (ING4) together with the Oncostatin M (OSM) were investigated on tumor regression and subsequent tumor recurrence. We constructed a recombinant adenovirus carrying ING4 and OSM, which could induce high-level expression of these three genes in NPC CNE-1 cells. Ad-ING4, Ad-OSM and Ad-ING4-OSM infection all inhibited the growth of CNE-1 cells in vitro, while the Ad-ING4-OSM exerted the strongest inhibitory effect. In CNE-1 xenograft tumor models mice, an intratumoral injection of Ad-ING4, Ad-OSM and Ad-ING4-OSM resulted in a reduced tumor burden, compared to normal saline controls. Therefore, we suggested that the introduction of adenovirus-mediated ING4 and OSM genes could synergistically decrease the recurrence or metastases and develop a control of NPC tumors, which advocate a promising therapeutic future in NPC treatment.

Oncostatin M activates STAT3 to promote endometrial cancer invasion and angiogenesis

Oncostatin M (OSM), a pleiotropic cytokine, can either promote or inhibit the growth of tumors derived from specific tissues. However, little is known about the activity and expression pattern of OSM in endometrial cancers (ECs). Herein we show that expression of OSM in human ECs was significantly higher than that in hyperplastic or normal tissues. In EC tissues, high OSM levels were positively correlated with tumor stage, histological grade, myometrial invasion, and lymph node metastasis. Additionally, we demonstrated that recombinant human OSM (rhOSM) promoted tumor angiogenesis in EC cell lines by activating STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) and enhanced both cell migration and cell invasion. rhOSM did not, however, influence the proliferation of EC cells in vitro. In contrast, in our in vivo xenograft model, overexpression of rhOSM promoted cell proliferation, tumor growth, and angiogenesis in nude mice. Collectively, these experiments suggest that OSM may be a tumor promoter that encourages EC progression. OSM may thus serve as a potential target of antiangiogenic therapy for endometrial cancer.

The Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase p110α Isoform Regulates Leukemia Inhibitory Factor Receptor Expression via c-Myc and miR-125b to Promote Cell Proliferation in Medulloblastoma

Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumor in childhood and represents the main cause of cancer-related death in this age group. The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway has been shown to play an important role in the regulation of medulloblastoma cell survival and proliferation, but the molecular mechanisms and downstream effectors underlying PI3K signaling still remain elusive. The impact of RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated silencing of PI3K isoforms p110α and p110δ on global gene expression was investigated by DNA microarray analysis in medulloblastoma cell lines. A subset of genes with selectively altered expression upon p110α silencing in comparison to silencing of the closely related p110δ isoform was revealed. Among these genes, the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor α (LIFR α) was validated as a novel p110α target in medulloblastoma. A network involving c-Myc and miR-125b was shown to be involved in the control of LIFRα expression downstream of p110α. Targeting the LIFRα by RNAi, or by using neutralizing reagents impaired medulloblastoma cell proliferation in vitro and induced a tumor volume reduction in vivo. An analysis of primary tumors revealed that LIFRα and p110α expression were elevated in the sonic hedgehog (SHH) subgroup of medulloblastoma, indicating its clinical relevance. Together, these data reveal a novel molecular signaling network, in which PI3K isoform p110α controls the expression of LIFRα via c-Myc and miR-125b to promote MB cell proliferation.

Oncostatin m, an inflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages, supports intramembranous bone healing in a mouse model of tibia injury

Different macrophage depletion strategies have demonstrated a vital role of macrophages in bone healing, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, with the use of a mouse model of tibia injury, we found that the cytokine oncostatin M [OSM or murine (m)OSM] was overexpressed during the initial inflammatory phase and that depletion of macrophages repressed mOSM expression. In Osm(-/-) mice, by micro-computed tomography and histology we observed a significant reduction in the amount of new intramedullar woven bone formed at the injured site, reduced number of Osterix(+) osteoblastic cells, and reduced expression of the osteoblast markers runt-related transcription factor 2 and alkaline phosphatase. In contrast, osteoclasts were normal throughout the healing period. One day after bone injury, Stat3, the main transcription factor activated by mOSM, was found phosphorylated/activated in endosteal osteoblastic cells located at the hedge of the hematoma. Interestingly, we observed reduced activation of Stat3 in Osm(-/-) mice. In addition, mice deficient in the mOSM receptor (Osmr(-/-)) also had reduced bone formation and osteoblast number within the injury site. These results suggest that mOSM, a product of macrophages, sustains intramembranous bone formation by signaling through Osmr and Stat3, acting on the recruitment, proliferation, and/or osteoblast differentiation of endosteal mesenchymal progenitor cells. Because bone resorption is largely unaltered, OSM could represent a new anabolic treatment for unconsolidated bone fractures.

HiJAK'd Signaling; the STAT3 Paradox in Senescence and Cancer Progression

Clinical and epidemiological data have associated chronic inflammation with cancer progression. Most tumors show evidence of infiltrating immune and inflammatory cells, and chronic inflammatory disorders are known to increase the overall risk of cancer development. While immune cells are often observed in early hyperplastic lesions in vivo, there remains debate over whether these immune cells and the cytokines they produce in the developing hyperplastic microenvironment act to inhibit or facilitate tumor development. The interleukin-6 (IL-6) family of cytokines, which includes IL-6 and oncostatin M (OSM), among others (LIF, CT-1, CNTF, and CLC), are secreted by immune cells, stromal cells, and epithelial cells, and regulate diverse biological processes. Each of the IL-6 family cytokines signals through a distinct receptor complex, yet each receptor complex uses a shared gp130 subunit, which is critical for signal transduction following cytokine binding. Activation of gp130 results in the activation of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3), and the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) and Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase (PI3K) signaling cascades. Tumor suppressive signaling can often be observed in normal cells following prolonged STAT3 activation. However, there is mounting evidence that the IL-6 family cytokines can contribute to later stages of tumor progression in many ways. Here we will review how the microenvironmental IL-6 family cytokine OSM influences each stage of the transformation process. We discuss the intrinsic adaptations a developing cancer cell must make in order to tolerate and circumvent OSM-mediated growth suppression, as well as the OSM effectors that are hijacked during tumor expansion and metastasis. We propose that combining current therapies with new ones that suppress the signals generated from the tumor microenvironment will significantly impact an oncologist’s ability to treat cancer.

The enigmatic cytokine oncostatin m and roles in disease

Oncostatin M is a secreted cytokine involved in homeostasis and in diseases involving chronic inflammation. It is a member of the gp130 family of cytokines that have pleiotropic functions in differentiation, cell proliferation, and hematopoetic, immunologic, and inflammatory networks. However, Oncostatin M also has activities novel to mediators of this cytokine family and others and may have fundamental roles in mechanisms of inflammation in pathology. Studies have explored Oncostatin M functions in cancer, bone metabolism, liver regeneration, and conditions with chronic inflammation including rheumatoid arthritis, lung and skin inflammatory disease, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease. This paper will review Oncostatin M biology in a historical fashion and focus on its unique activities, in vitro and in vivo, that differentiate it from other cytokines and inspire further study or consideration in therapeutic approaches.

New chondrosarcoma cell lines and mouse models to study the link between chondrogenesis and chemoresistance

Chondrosarcomas are cartilage-forming, poorly vascularized tumors. They represent the second malignant primary bone tumor of adults after osteosarcoma, but in contrast to osteosarcoma they are resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, surgical excision remaining the only therapeutic option. Few cell lines and animal models are available, and the mechanisms behind their chemoresistance remain largely unknown. Our goal was to establish new cell lines and animal cancer models from human chondrosarcoma biopsies to study their chemoresistance. Between 2007 and 2012, 10 chondrosarcoma biopsies were collected and used for cell culture and transplantation into nude mice. Only one transplanted biopsy and one injected cell line has engrafted successfully leading to conventional central high-grade chondrosarcoma similar to the original biopsies. In culture, two new stable cell lines were obtained, one from a dedifferentiated and one from a grade III conventional central chondrosarcoma biopsy. Their genetic characterization revealed triploid karyotypes, mutations in IDH1, IDH2, and TP53, deletion in CDKN2A and/or MDM2 amplification. These cell lines expressed mesenchymal membrane markers (CD44, 73, 90, 105) and were able to produce a hyaline cartilaginous matrix when cultured in chondrogenic three-dimensional (3D) pellets. Using a high-throughput quantitative RT-PCR approach, we observed that cell lines cultured in monolayer had lost expression of several genes implicated in cartilage development (COL2A1, COMP, ACAN) but restored their expression in 3D cultures. Chondrosarcoma cells in monolayer were sensitive to several conventional chemotherapeutic agents but became resistant to low doses of mafosfamide or doxorubicin when cultured in 3D pellets, in parallel with an altered nucleic accumulation of the drug. Our results indicate that the cartilaginous matrix produced by chondrosarcoma cells may impair diffusion of several drugs and thus contribute to chemoresistance. Therefore, 3D chondrogenic cell pellets constitute a more relevant model to study chondrosarcoma chemoresistance and may be a valuable alternative to animal experimentations.