Enhancement in antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of tramadol by transdermal proniosome gel

Niosomes based formulation containing tenoxicam: A newer solution for the rheumatic diseases

OBJECTIVE

This investigation aimed to explore the potential of non-ionic surfactant based niosomal vesicles encapsulating tenoxicam (TN; anti-rheumatic drug) for the treatment of rheumatic diseases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Mechanical dispersion technique with controlled pressure was employed to prepare different niosomal formulations. The effects of different ratios of surfactant (span-60), lipid, and sodium deoxycholate on noisome's physicochemical properties have been examined. Moreover, inhibition of TNF-α in lipopolysaccharide-activated cultured Human leukemia monocytic (THP-1) cells were demonstrated to assess the in vitro inflammation profile. Finally, the optimized niosomal formulation (TN3) was prepared in gel matrix consist of carbopol 934 (termed as TN34) and stability was also tested at 4±2 ̊C, 25±2 ̊C, 37±2 ̊C and 45±2 ̊C for 6 months.

RESULTS

The optimized niosomal formulation exhibited a small vesicle size (165±14nm) and high drug encapsulation (79.64±1.5%). Niosomal gel formulation TN34 showed pH (6.7), viscosity (6810±3.34 cps), spreadability (19.11±1.87gm.cm/sec) and also displayed sustained release pattern of drug release (98.16±0.07% TN released from gel matrix in 24h) in vitro release study. TN34 exhibited substantial anti-inflammatory response, with ∼75% inhibition of TNF-α in 48h. Stability investigation revealed that refrigerator temperature is most suitable for the storage of niosomal gel.

CONCLUSION

Transdermal niosomal formulation displayed promising potential in the treatment of rheumatic diseases.

Brucine Entrapped Titanium Oxide Nanoparticle for Anticancer Treatment: An In Vitro Study

Backgroundand Objective. The public's health has been seriously threatened by cervical cancer during recent times. In terms of newly diagnosed cases worldwide, it ranks as the ninth most prevalent malignancy. Multiple investigations have proven that nanoparticles can effectively combat cancer due to their small dimensions and extensive surface area. In the meantime, bioactive compounds which are biocompatible are being loaded onto nanoparticles to promote cancer therapy. The current study investigates the anticancerous potential of Brucine-entrapped titanium oxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) in cervical cancer cell line (HeLa). Materials and Methods. The physiochemical, structural, and morphological aspects of Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NPs were evaluated by UV-visible spectrophotometer, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDAX). The cytotoxic effect against the HeLa cell line was assessed using a tetrazolium-based colorimetric assay (MTT), a trypan blue exclusion (TBE) assay, phase contrast microscopic analysis, and a fluorescence assay including ROS and DAPI staining. Furthermore, estimation of antioxidant markers includes catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Results. The UV spectrum at 266 nm revealed the formation of TiO NPs. The FT-IR peaks confirmed the effective entrapment of brucine with TiO2 NPs. The average size (100.0 nm) of Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NPs was revealed in DLS analysis. The micrograph of the SEM revealed the formation of ellipsoidal to tetragonal-shaped NPs. The Ti, O, and C signals were observed in EDAX. In MTT assay, Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NPs showed inhibition of cell proliferation in a dose-wise manner and IC50 was noticed at the concentration of 30 µg/mL. The percentage of viable cells gradually reduced in the trypan blue exclusion assay. The phase contrast microscopic analysis of Brucine-entrapped TiO2 NP-treated cells showed cell shrinkage, cell wall deterioration, and cell blebbing. The intracellular ROS level was increased in a dose-wise manner when compared to control cells in ROS staining. The condensed nuclei and apoptotic cells were increased in treated cells, as noted in DAPI staining. In treated cells, the antioxidant markers such as CAT, GSH, and SOD levels were substantially lower compared to the control cells. Conclusion. The synthesized Brucine entrapped TiO2 NPs exhibited remarkable anticancer activity against the HeLa cell line.

Olive Oil-Based Reverse Microemulsion for Stability and Topical Delivery of Methotrexate: In Vitro

Hydrolysis of pharmaceutically active molecules can be in control under a confined environment of water-in-oil microemulsion. Stability of model drug methotrexate (MTX) in a sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT) and olive oil microemulsion system has been evaluated. The physicochemical properties of AOT-MTX-water-olive oil reverse microemulsion (MTX-RM) were examined by UV-vis, Fourier transform infrared, and X-ray diffraction techniques, and the hydrodynamic size was determined by dynamic light scattering techniques and morphologies were characterized by a transmission electron microscope and atomic force microscope. In vitro permeation of MTX-RM through treated skin and its mechanism are evaluated by a UV-visible spectrophotometer, confocal laser scanning microscope, differential scanning calorimeter, and attenuated total reflecting infrared spectroscopy (ATR). The interaction of MTX with the AOT headgroup in confined environment RM enhanced the stability of MTX without affecting the molecular integrity at room temperature. Chemical stability of MTX in MTX-RM (W0 = 5) is significantly higher (∼97%) at room temperature for the study period of 1 year than in MTX-RM (W0 = 15) (∼72%). Interaction of MTX with the AOT headgroup is also visualized by a high-resolution transmission electron microscope and is in correlation with FT-IR data of MTX-RM. The skin fluxes of MTX are 15.1, 19.75, and 22.75 times higher at water content (W0) of 5, 10, and 15, respectively, in MTX-RM in comparison to aqueous solution of MTX. The enhanced amounts of the MTX were detected using CLSM in hair follicles, sweat glands, and epidermis layer of the skin. Merging of T2, T3, and T4 thermal peaks in one broad peak in treated skin endothermograph shows that carrier MTX-RM affects the lipid as well protein structure of the treated skin. ATR data of treated skin showed an increase in the intensity of the carbonyl peak at 1750 cm-1 (lipid), shifting of the amide II peaks, and separation of peaks in the range of 1060 to 1000 cm-1 (vibration mode of -CH2OH, C-O stretching, and C-OH bending peak of the carbohydrate) in comparison to control skin, which indicates that MTX-RM interacts with glycolipid and glycoprotein through carbohydrate hydroxy groups.

Curcumin Transferosome-Loaded Thermosensitive Intranasal in situ Gel as Prospective Antiviral Therapy for SARS-Cov-2

Purpose

Immunomodulatory and broad-spectrum antiviral activities have motivated the evaluation of curcumin for Coronavirus infection 2019 (COVID-19) management. Inadequate bioavailability is the main impediment to the therapeutic effects of oral Cur. This study aimed to develop an optimal curcumin transferosome-loaded thermosensitive in situ gel to improve its delivery to the lungs.

Methods

Transferosomes were developed by using 33 screening layouts. The phospholipid concentration as well as the concentration and type of surfactant were considered independent variables. The entrapment efficiency (EE%), size, surface charge, and polydispersity index (PDI) were regarded as dependent factors. A cold technique was employed to develop thermosensitive in-situ gels. Optimized transferosomes were loaded onto the selected gels. The produced gel was assessed based on shape attributes, ex vivo permeability enhancement, and the safety of the nasal mucosa. The in vitro cytotoxicity, antiviral cytopathic effect, and plaque assay (CV/CPE/Plaque activity), and in vivo performance were evaluated after intranasal administration in experimental rabbits.

Results

The optimized preparation displayed a particle size of 664.3 ± 69.3 nm, EE% of 82.8 ± 0.02%, ZP of -11.23 ± 2.5 mV, and PDI of 0.6 ± 0.03. The in vitro curcumin release from the optimized transferosomal gel was markedly improved compared with that of the free drug-loaded gel. An ex vivo permeation study revealed a significant improvement (2.58-fold) in drug permeability across nasal tissues of sheep. Histopathological screening confirmed the safety of these preparations. This formulation showed high antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 at reduced concentrations. High relative bioavailability (226.45%) was attained after the formula intranasally administered to rabbits compared to the free drug in-situ gel. The curcumin transferosome gel displayed a relatively high lung accumulation after intranasal administration.

Conclusion

This study provides a promising formulation for the antiviral treatment of COVID-19 patients, which can be evaluated further in preclinical and clinical studies.

Recent Progress in Gels for Neuropathic Pain

Neuropathic pain is a complex and debilitating condition that affects millions of people worldwide. While several treatment options are available, they often have limited efficacy and are associated with adverse effects. In recent years, gels have emerged as a promising option for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Inclusion of various nanocarriers, such as cubosomes and niosomes, into gels results in pharmaceutical forms with higher drug stability and increased drug penetration into tissues compared to products currently marketed for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Furthermore, these compounds usually provide sustained drug release and are biocompatible and biodegradable, which makes them a safe option for drug delivery. The purpose of this narrative review was to provide a comprehensive analysis of the current state of the field and identify potential directions for future research in the development of effective and safe gels for the treatment of neuropathic pain, ultimately improving the quality of life for patients suffering from neuropathic pain.

Design, Development, and Evaluation of Treprostinil Embedded Adhesive Transdermal Patch

Clinical application of treprostinil in pulmonary arterial hypertension is hampered by adverse effects caused by its high dosing frequency. The objective of this investigation was to Formulate an adhesive-type transdermal patch of treprostinil and evaluate it both in vitro and in vivo. A 3²-factorial design was utilized to optimize the selected independent variables (X₁: drug amount, X₂: enhancer concentration) on the response variables (Y₁: drug release, Y₂: transdermal flux). The optimized patch was evaluated for various pharmaceutical properties, skin irritation, and pharmacokinetics in rats. Optimization results signify considerable influence (p < 0.0001) of X₁ on both Y₁ and Y₂, as compared to X₂. The optimized patch possesses higher drug content (>95%), suitable surface morphology, and an absence of drug crystallization. FTIR analysis revealed compatibility of the drug with excipients, whereas DSC thermograms indicate that the drug exists as amorphous in the patch. The adhesive properties of the prepared patch confirm adequate adhesion and painless removal, while the skin irritation study confirms its safety. A steady drug release via Fickian diffusion and greater transdermal delivery (~23.26 µg/cm²/h) substantiate the potential of the optimized patch. Transdermal therapy resulted in higher treprostinil absorption (p < 0.0001) and relative bioavailability (237%) when compared to oral administration. Overall, the results indicate that the developed drug in the adhesive patch can effectively deliver treprostinil through the skin and could be a promising treatment option for pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Qbd-Based Approach to Optimize Niosomal Gel of Levosulpiride for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Poor aqueous solubility besides extensive hepatic first effect significantly decreases the oral absorption of levosulpiride, which in turn minimizes its therapeutic effectiveness. Niosomes have been extensively investigated as a transdermal vesicular nanocarrier to increase the delivery of low permeable compounds into and across the skin. This research work was to design, develop and optimize levosulpiride-loaded niosomal gel and to evaluate its prospects for transdermal delivery. The Box-Behnken design was used to optimize niosomes by analyzing the impact of three factors (cholesterol; X1, Span 40; X2, and sonication time; X3) on the responses (particle size, Y1, and entrapment efficiency, Y2). Optimized formulation (NC) was incorporated into gel and evaluated for pharmaceutical properties, drug release study, ex vivo permeation, and in vivo absorption. The design experiment data suggest that all three independent variables influence both response variables significantly (p < 0.01). Pharmaceutical characteristics of NC vesicles showed the absence of drug excipient interaction, nanosize (~102.2 nm), narrow distribution (~0.218), adequate zeta potential (−49.9 mV), and spherical shape, which are suitable for transdermal therapy. The levosulpiride release rates varied significantly (p < 0.01) between niosomal gel formulation and control. Greater flux (p < 0.01) was observed with levosulpiride-loaded niosomal gel than with control gel formulation. Indeed, the drug plasma profile of niosomal gel was significantly higher (p < 0.005), with ~3 folds higher Cmax and greater bioavailability (~500% higher; p < 0.0001) than its counterpart. Overall, these findings imply that the use of an optimized niosomal gel formulation can increase the therapeutic efficacy of levosulpiride and may represent a promising alternative to conventional therapy.

Intranasal Administration of Dolutegravir-Loaded Nanoemulsion-Based In Situ Gel for Enhanced Bioavailability and Direct Brain Targeting

Dolutegravir's therapeutic effectiveness in the management of neuroAIDS is mainly limited by its failure to cross the blood-brain barrier. However, lipid-based nanovesicles such as nanoemulsions have demonstrated their potential for the brain targeting of various drugs by intranasal delivery. Thus, the purpose of this study was to develop a Dolutegravir-loaded nanoemulsion-based in situ gel and evaluate its prospective for brain targeting by intranasal delivery. Dolutegravir-loaded nanoemulsions were prepared using dill oil, Tween^® 80, and Transcutol^® P. Optimization of the nanoemulsion particle size and drug release was carried out using a simplex lattice design. Formulations (F1-F7 and B1-B6) were assessed for various pharmaceutical characteristics. Ex vivo permeation and ciliotoxicity studies of selected in situ gels (B1) were conducted using sheep nasal mucosa. Drug targeting to the brain was assessed in vivo in rats following the nasal delivery of B1. The composition of oil, surfactant, and cosurfactant significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the dependent variables (particle size and % of drug release in 8 h). Formulation B1 exhibits pharmaceutical characteristics that are ideal for intranasal delivery. The mucosal steady-state flux noticed with BI was significantly greater (p < 0.005) than for the control gel. A histopathology of nasal mucosa treated with BI showed no signs of toxicity or cellular damage. Intranasal administration of B1 resulted in greater C_max (~six-fold, p < 0.0001) and AUC_0-α (~five-fold, p < 0.0001), and decreased T_max (1 h) values in the brain, compared to intravenous administration. Meantime, the drug level in the plasma was relatively low, suggesting less systemic exposure to Dolutegravir through intranasal delivery. In summary, the promising data observed here signifies the prospective of B1 to enhance the brain targeting of Dolutegravir by intranasal delivery and it could be used as a feasible and practicable strategy for the management of neuroAIDS.

Intranasal Delivery of Darunavir-Loaded Mucoadhesive In Situ Gel: Experimental Design, In Vitro Evaluation, and Pharmacokinetic Studies

The clinical efficacy of antiretroviral therapy in NeuroAIDS is primarily limited by the low perfusion of the drug to the brain. The objective of the current investigation was to design and develop an in situ mucoadhesive gel loaded with darunavir to assess the feasibility of brain targeting through the intranasal route. Preliminary batches (F1−F9) were prepared and evaluated for various pharmaceutical characteristics. A full factorial design of the experiment was applied to optimize and assess the effect of two influencing variables (Carbopol 934P (X1) and Poloxamer 407 (X2)) on the response effects (gelation temperature (Y1) and % drug release (Y2) at 8 h). The data demonstrate that both influencing variables affect the response variables significantly (p < 0.05). The optimized formulation (F7) exhibited favorable rheological properties, adequate mucoadhesion, sustained drug release, and greater permeation across the nasal mucosa. An in vitro ciliotoxicity study confirms the nontoxicity of the optimized in situ gel (D7) on the nasal mucosa. An in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rats was performed to assess drug targeting to the brain following the nasal application of the selected in situ gel (D7). Significantly higher (p < 0.0001) Cmax (~4-fold) and AUC0-α (~3.5-fold) values were noticed in the brain after nasal application, as compared to the intravenous route. However, less systemic exposure to darunavir was noticed with nasal therapy, which confirms the low absorption of the drug into the central compartment. Overall, the data here demonstrate that the optimized in situ mucoadhesive nasal gel is effective in targeting darunavir to the brain by the nasal route and could be a viable option for the treatment of NeuroAIDS.

Novel Therapies for the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain: Potential and Pitfalls

Neuropathic pain affects more than one million people across the globe. The quality of life of people suffering from neuropathic pain has been considerably declining due to the unavailability of appropriate therapeutics. Currently, available treatment options can only treat patients symptomatically, but they are associated with severe adverse side effects and the development of tolerance over prolonged use. In the past decade, researchers were able to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in neuropathic pain; thus, continuous efforts are evident, aiming to develop novel interventions with better efficacy instead of symptomatic treatment. The current review discusses the latest interventional strategies used in the treatment and management of neuropathic pain. This review also provides insights into the present scenario of pain research, particularly various interventional techniques such as spinal cord stimulation, steroid injection, neural blockade, transcranial/epidural stimulation, deep brain stimulation, percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, neuroablative procedures, opto/chemogenetics, gene therapy, etc. In a nutshell, most of the above techniques are at preclinical stage and facing difficulty in translation to clinical studies due to the non-availability of appropriate methodologies. Therefore, continuing research on these interventional strategies may help in the development of promising novel therapies that can improve the quality of life of patients suffering from neuropathic pain.

Adenosine Conjugated Docetaxel Nanoparticles—Proof of Concept Studies for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer, a molecularly diverse disease, is the most prevalent cause of cancer mortality globally. Increasing understanding of the clinicopathology of the disease and mechanisms of tumor progression has facilitated early detection and multimodal care. Despite the advancements, survival rates are extremely low due to non-targeted therapeutics and correspondingly increased risk of metastasis. At some phases of cancer, patients need to face the ghost of chemotherapy. It is a difficult decision near the end of life. Such treatments have the capability to prolong survival or reduce symptoms, but can cause serious adverse effects, affecting quality of life of the patient. It is evident that many patients do not die from burden of the disease alone, but they die due to the toxic effect of treatment. Thus, increasing the efficacy is one aspect and decreasing the toxicity is another critical aspect of cancer formulation design. Through our current research, we tried to uncover both mentioned potentials of the formulation. Therefore, we designed actively targeted nanoparticles for improved therapeutics considering the overexpression of adenosine (ADN) receptors on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Docetaxel (DTX), an essential therapeutic as part of combination therapy or as monotherapy for the treatment of NSCLC, was encapsulated in biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles. ADN was conjugated on the surface of nanoparticles using EDC-NHS chemistry. The particles were characterized in vitro for physicochemical properties, cellular uptake, and biocompatibility. The size and zeta potential of DTX nanoparticles (DPLGA) were found to be 138.4 ± 5.45 nm and −16.7 ± 2.3 mV which were found to change after ADN conjugation. The size was increased to 158.2 ± 6.3 nm, whereas zeta potential was decreased to −11.7 ± 1.4 mV for ADN-conjugated DTX nanoparticles (ADN-DPLGA) indicative of surface conjugation. As observed from transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the nanoparticles were spherical and showed no significant change in encapsulation efficiency even after surface conjugation. Careful and systematic optimization leads to ADN-conjugated PLGA nanoparticles having distinctive characteristic features such as particle size, surface potential, encapsulation efficacy, etc., that may play crucial roles in the fate of nanoparticles (NPs). Consequently, higher cellular uptake in the A549 lung cancer cell line was exhibited by ADN-DPLGA compared to DPLGA, illustrating the role of ADN receptors (ARs) in facilitating the uptake of NPs. Further in vivo pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution experiments revealed prolonged circulation in plasma and significantly higher lung tissue distribution than in other organs, dictating the targeting potential of the developed formulation over naïve drug and unconjugated formulations. Further, in vivo acute toxicity was examined using multiple parameters for non-toxic attributes of the developed formulation compared to other non-targeted organs. Further, it also supports the selection of biocompatible polymers in the formulation. The current study presents a proof-of-concept for a multipronged formulation technology strategy that might be used to maximize anticancer therapeutic responses in the lungs in the treatment of NSCLC. An improved therapeutic and safety profile would help achieve maximum efficacy at a reduced dose that would eventually help reduce the toxicity.

Development, Characterization and Optimization of the Anti-Inflammatory Influence of Meloxicam Loaded into a Eucalyptus Oil-Based Nanoemulgel

The purpose of the present study was to explore the influence of a certain natural essential oil, namely eucalyptus oil, as an anti-inflammatory agent in addition to its prospective role in enhancing the action of meloxicam in reducing inflammation. As far as we know, this has been the first integration of meloxicam and eucalyptus essential oil into a nanoemulgel formulation intended for topical use. Primarily, eucalyptus oil was utilized in developing a nanoemulsion formulation incorporating meloxicam. A 22 factorial design was constructed using two independent variables (oil concentration and surfactant concentration) with two responses (particle size and % of in vitro release). One optimized formula was selected depending on the desirability function and subjected to a stability study. The optimized nanoemulsion was mixed with HPMC as a gelling agent to produce a meloxicam-loaded nanoemulgel, which was examined for its properties, stability, in vitro release and ex vivo permeation. Eventually, the anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated and compared with a placebo and corresponding gel formulation. The developed nanoemulgel revealed acceptable physical characteristics to be applied topically. Studying of the in vitro release was conducted successfully for 6 h. The ex vivo permeation from the nanoemulgel formulations was prompted, showing an appropriate value of the steady-state transdermal flux (SSTF). As a final point, the anti-inflammatory activity of the developed nanoemulgel revealed a valued anti-inflammatory influence. Additionally, the concurrence of eucalyptus essential oil and meloxicam was assured, and their potential in combating and lowering inflammation was supported.

Itraconazole loaded nano-structured lipid carrier for topical ocular delivery: Optimization and evaluation

Background & Objectives

Low penetration efficiency and retention time are the main therapeutic concerns that make it difficult for most of the drugs to be delivered to the intraocular tissues. These challenging issues are often related to those drugs, which have low or poor solubility and low permeability. The goal of this study was designed to develop nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with itraconazole (ITZ) with the objective of enhancing topical ocular permeation and thereby improving clinical efficacy.

Materials and Methods

ITZ-loaded NLCs were fabricated by a high-speed homogenization technique using surfactant (Poloxamer 407), and lipids (stearic acid and oleic acid). Optimization of formulations was performed by 3 level factorial design and the selected formulation (F6) was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and transmission electron microscopy. Antifungal activity was assessed by measuring the zone of inhibition and irritation potential using the HET-CAM test.

Results

The independent variables (lipid ratio-X₁ and percentage of emulsifier-X₂) have a positive impact on percentage entrapment efficiency (Y₂) and percentage release (Y₃) but have a negative impact on particle size (Y₁). Based on the better entrapment efficiency (94.65%), optimum particle size (150.67 nm), and percentage cumulative drug release (68.67%), batch F6 was selected for further evaluation. Electron microscopic images revealed that the prepared particles are spherical and have nano size. Antifungal studies demonstrated enhancement in the zone of inhibition by formulation F6 as compared to a commercial eye drop. The non-irritancy of optimized formulation (F6) was confirmed with a zero score.

Interpretation & Conclusion

In summary, the optimized NLCs seem to be a potent carrier for the effective delivery of itraconazole in ocular therapy.

Optimization and Transfollicular Delivery of Finasteride-Loaded Proniosomes for Hair Growth Stimulation in C57BL/6Mlac Mice

The study aimed to develop the finasteride-loaded proniosome (FLP) to enhance the transfollicular delivery of finasteride (FN). The response surface methodology (RSM) combined with central composite design (CCD) with three independent variables (FN concentrations, total lipid content, and cholesterol content) was used to optimize the FLP preparation. The particles size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading capacity of the FLP were analyzed. The transfollicular delivery of the optimum formulation was investigated in vitro. In vivo hair growth stimulation study was performed on C57BL/6Mlac mice dorsal areas. The Draize primary skin irritation test for erythema and edema was performed in the New Zealand white rabbit skin. The optimum FLP consists of 5.0 mM of FN, 10.1 mM of total lipid content, and 50.0% of the cholesterol in the total lipid. The prepared proniosome delivered the FN significantly (p < 0.05), compared to the naked finasteride solution in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The FLP treatment significantly increases the number and size of hair follicles in a dose-dependent manner. The efficiency of 1% FLP was comparable to the 2% minoxidil solution. The FLP exhibited no skin irritation after 72 h. Therefore, the results demonstrated that the FLP could stimulate hair growth via a transfollicular delivery system.

Lipid-Based Nanovesicular Drug Delivery Systems

In designing a new drug, considering the preferred route of administration, various requirements must be fulfilled. Active molecules pharmacokinetics should be reliable with a valuable drug profile as well as well-tolerated. Over the past 20 years, nanotechnologies have provided alternative and complementary solutions to those of an exclusively pharmaceutical chemical nature since scientists and clinicians invested in the optimization of materials and methods capable of regulating effective drug delivery at the nanometer scale. Among the many drug delivery carriers, lipid nano vesicular ones successfully support clinical candidates approaching such problems as insolubility, biodegradation, and difficulty in overcoming the skin and biological barriers such as the blood-brain one. In this review, the authors discussed the structure, the biochemical composition, and the drug delivery applications of lipid nanovesicular carriers, namely, niosomes, proniosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, pharmacosomes, ufasomes, phytosomes, catanionic vesicles, and extracellular vesicles.

Quality by Design for Optimizing a Novel Liposomal Jojoba Oil-Based Emulgel to Ameliorate the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Brucine

One of the recent advancements in research is the application of natural products in developing newly effective formulations that have few drawbacks and that boost therapeutic effects. The goal of the current exploration is to investigate the effect of jojoba oil in augmenting the anti-inflammatory effect of Brucine natural alkaloid. This is first development of a formulation that applies Brucine and jojoba oil int a PEGylated liposomal emulgel proposed for topical application. Initially, various PEGylated Brucine liposomal formulations were fabricated using a thin-film hydration method. (2²) Factorial design was assembled using two factors (egg Phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol concentrations) and three responses (particle size, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release). The optimized formula was incorporated within jojoba oil emulgel. The PEGylated liposomal emulgel was inspected for its characteristics, in vitro, ex vivo and anti-inflammatory behaviors. Liposomal emulgel showed a pH of 6.63, a spreadability of 48.8 mm and a viscosity of 9310 cP. As much as 40.57% of Brucine was released after 6 h, and drug permeability exhibited a flux of 0.47 µg/cm²·h. Lastly, % of inflammation was lowered to 47.7, which was significant effect compared to other formulations. In conclusion, the anti-inflammatory influence of jojoba oil and Brucine was confirmed, supporting their integration into liposomal emulgel as a potential nanocarrier.

Brucine-Loaded Ethosomal Gel: Design, Optimization, and Anti-inflammatory Activity

Brucine, one of the natural medications obtained from Nux vomica seeds, is used as an anti-inflammatory drug. Several investigations were performed to overcome its drawbacks, which will affect significantly its pharmaceutical formulation. The goal of the current investigation was to design, optimize, and evaluate the anti-inflammatory performance of BRU ethosomal gel. Brucineethosomal formulations were prepared using thin film hydration method and optimized by central composite design approach using three independent variables (lecithin concentration, cholesterol concentration, and ethanol percentage) and three response variables (vesicular size, encapsulation efficiency, and skin permeation). The optimized formulation was examined for its stability and then incorporated into HPMC gel to get BRU ethosomal gel. The obtained BRU-loaded ethosomal gel was evaluated for its physical properties, in vitro release, and ex vivo permeation and skin irritation. Finally, carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema test was adopted for the anti-inflammatory activity. The developed BRU ethosomal gel exhibited good physical characteristics comparable with the conventional developed BRU gel. In vitro release of BRU from ethosomal gel was effectively extended for 6 h. Permeation of BRU from ethosomes was significantly higher than all formulations (p < 0.05), since it recorded steady state transdermal flux value 0.548 ± 0.03 μg/cm² h with enhancement ratio 2.73 ± 0.23. Eventually, BRU ethosomal gel exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity as manifested by a significant decrease in rat hind paw inflammation following 24 h. In conclusion, the study emphasized the prospective of ethosomal gel as a fortunate carrier for intensifying the anti-inflammatory effect of Brucine.

Formulation and assessment of hydroxyzine HCL solid lipid nanoparticles by dual emulsification technique for transdermal delivery

Hydroxyzine HCL (HHCL) is an antihistamine, used for the treatment of allergic skin conditions. The purpose of this study was to achieve a dual phase drug delivery rate across the intact skin, to enhance HHCL permeation through the stratum corneum, to assess the peripheral H₁-antihistaminic activity and the extent to which HHCL was systemically absorbed from transdermal gel loaded with solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), as well as to avoid its extreme bitterness. According to 2³ factorial design, eight formulations of HHCL-SLNs were prepared by the double emulsification method. Lipid type (X_A), surfactant concentration (X_B) and co-surfactant concentration (X_C) were the independent variables. All formulations were characterized for their surface morphology, particle size, entrapment efficiency and in-vitro drug release study. The optimized formula that provides greater desirability was then incorporated into the transdermal gel. In addition, the efficacy of the developed gel was tested in-vivo using 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene induced atopic dermatitis as lesion model in mice. F4 showed an average diameter 111 nm ± 0.03, zeta potential - 30 MV ± 2.4 and EE 75.2% ± 4.4. TEM images showed spherical, smooth morphology with uniform particles distribution. In-vivo study demonstrated potent antipruritic efficacy of transdermal gel in atopic dermatitis such as induced lesions compared to HHCL gel. Hence, HHCL solid lipid nanoparticles transdermal gel may be considered as potential for delivery of HHCL and alternatively to traditional oral use.

Injectable Nanocomposite Hydrogels for Cancer Therapy

Hydrogel is a kind of 3D polymer network with strong swelling ability in water and appropriate mechanical and biological properties, which make it feasible to maintain bioactive substances and has promising applications in the fields of biomaterials, soft machines, and artificial tissues. Unfortunately, traditional hydrogels prepared by chemical crosslinking have poor mechanical properties and limited functions, which limit their further application. In recent years, with the continuous development of nanoparticle research, more and more studies have combined nanoparticles with hydrogels to make up for the shortcomings of traditional hydrogels. In this article, the types and functions of hydrogels and nanomaterials are introduced first, as well as the functions and applications of injectable nanocomposite hydrogels (INHs), then the latest progress of INHs for cancer treatment is reviewed, some existing problems are summarized, and the application prospect of NHs is prospected.

Innovative topical niosomal gel formulation containing diclofenac sodium (niofenac)

The purpose of this research was to enhance the transdermal delivery of diclofenac sodium niosomal formulations. To characterise the obtained niosomes, SEM, XRPD, DSC and ATR-FTIR were employed. The size of the niosomes increased from 158.00 ± 6.17 to 400.87 ± 4.99 nm when cholesterol was incorporated into the formulations. It was observed that the zeta potential of niofenac varies from -25.40 ± 1.352 to -43.13 ± 1.171 mV when the cholesterol percentage decreased from 2% to 0.2%. The higher entrapment efficiency percentage (63.70 ± 0.18%) was obtained for the formulations with larger particle sizes and higher cholesterol content. The optimised niofenac formulation showed a controlled release fashion where 61.71 ± 0.59% of the drug released within 24 h. The results showed that the value of permeated diclofenac sodium through the skin layers was higher for the niofenac gel formulation (242.3 ± 31.11 µg/cm²) compared to simple gel formulation (127.40 ± 27.80 µg/cm²). Besides, niofenac formulation outperformed the anti-inflammatory activities in the formalin test compared to the control and diclofenac simple gel group. The licking time was significantly lower in both early (40.2 ± 7.3 s) and late stages (432.4 ± 31.7 s) for niofenac compared to conventional formulation (early stage 130.4 ± 8.73 s and late stage 660.6 ± 123.73 s). This study indicates that niosomal formulations can improve drug therapeutic effects by increasing drug delivery to specific sites.

Quality by Design for Development, Optimization and Characterization of Brucine Ethosomal Gel for Skin Cancer Delivery

Natural products have been extensively used for treating a wide variety of disorders. In recent times, Brucine (BRU) as one of the natural medications extracted from seeds of nux vomica, was investigated for its anticancer activity. As far as we know, this is the first study on BRU anticancer activity against skin cancer. Thus, the rational of this work was implemented to develop, optimize and characterize the anticancer activity of BRU loaded ethosomal gel. Basically, thin film hydration method was used to formulate BRU ethosomal preparations, by means of Central composite design (CCD), which were operated to construct (3²) factorial design. Two independent variables were designated (phospholipid percentage and ethanol percentage) with three responses (vesicular size, encapsulation efficiency and flux). Based on the desirability function, one formula was selected and incorporated into HPMC gel base to develop BRU loaded ethosomal gel. The fabricated gel was assessed for all physical characterization. In-vitro release investigation, ex-vivo permeation and MTT calorimetric assay were performed. BRU loaded ethosomal gel exhibited acceptable values for the characterization parameters which stand proper for topical application. In-vitro release investigation was efficiently prolonged for 6 h. The flux from BRU loaded ethosome was enhanced screening optimum SSTF value. Finally, in-vitro cytotoxicity study proved that BRU loaded ethosomal gel significantly improved the anticancer activity of the drug against A375 human melanoma cell lines. Substantially, the investigation proposed a strong motivation for further study of the lately developed BRU loaded ethosomal gel as a prospective therapeutic strategy for melanoma treatment.

Preparation, characterization and evaluation of anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of brucine-loaded nanoemulgel

Brucine (BRU) is a natural product derived from nux-vomica seeds. It is commonly used as an anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive drug to relieve arthritis and traumatic pain. Nevertheless, its use is significantly limited by its low aqueous solubility, as well as the gastrointestinal problems and systemic toxicity that may occur following oral administration. The goal of this study, therefore, was to formulate and evaluate a nanoemulgel formulation of BRU for enhanced topical anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities. Different formulations were developed (BRU gel, emulgel and nanoemulgel) using 1% w/w NaCMC as a gelling agent. The formulated preparations were assessed for their physical appearance, spreadability, viscosity, particle size, in vitro drug release and ex vivo permeation studies. In addition, the carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema method was adopted to scrutinize the anti-inflammatory activity, while the hot plate method and acetic acid-induced writhing test were used to assess the anti-nociceptive activity of different formulations in male BALB/c mice. The formulated BRU-loaded preparations showed good physical characteristics. Cumulative drug release from BRU-loaded nanoemulgel was remarkably higher than that of the other formulations. Ex vivo drug permeation of the nanoemulgel formulation across rat skin showed enhanced drug permeation and higher transdermal flux as compared to BRU-loaded gel or emulgel. Most importantly, the carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema model verified the efficient anti-inflammatory potential of BRU-loaded nanoemulgel. In addition, BRU-loaded nanoemulgel exhibited significant protective effects against thermal stimulation in the hot plate test and remarkably inhibited acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing in mice. Furthermore, a skin irritation test indicated that BRU-loaded nanoemulgel elicited neither edema nor erythema upon application to rat skin. Collectively, our results suggest that myrrh oil-based nanoemulgel might represent a promising delivery vehicle for potentiating the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive actions of brucine.

Date Palm Extract (Phoenix dactylifera) PEGylated Nanoemulsion: Development, Optimization and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

Date palm fruit (Phoenix dactylifera) is reputed to have numerous biological activities, including anticancer properties. To utilize the great fortune of this fruit, the current study aimed to maximize its pharmacological activity. Date palm extract (DPE) of Khalas cultivar was obtained in powder form and then was formulated into nanoemulsion (NE). The optimized DPE-NE was formulated along with its naked counterpart followed by studying their physical and chemical properties. A qualitative assessment of total serum protein associated with the surface of formulations was implemented. Studies for the in vitro release of DPE from developed NE before and after incubation with serum were investigated. Eventually, an MTT assay was conducted. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were 22.89 ± 0.013 mg GAE/g of dry DPE and 9.90 ± 0.03 mg QE/g of dry DPE, respectively. Homogenous NE formulations were attained with appropriate particle size and viscosity that could be administered intravenously. The optimized PEGylated NE exhibited a proper particle size, PDI, and zeta potential. Total serum protein adsorbed on PEG-NE surface was significantly low. The release of the drug through in vitro study was effectively extended for 24 h. Ultimately; PEGylated NE of DPE attained significant inhibition for cancer cell viability with IC₅₀ values of 18.6 ± 2.4 and 13.5 ± 1.8 µg/mL for MCF-7 and HepG2 cell lines, respectively. PEGylated NE of DPE of Khalas cultivar will open the gate for future adjuvants for cancer therapy.

Clarithromycin Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Topical Ocular Therapy: Optimization, Evaluation and In Vivo Studies

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are being extensively exploited as topical ocular carrier systems to enhance the bioavailability of drugs. This study investigated the prospects of drug-loaded SLNs to increase the ocular permeation and improve the therapeutic potential of clarithromycin in topical ocular therapy. SLNs were formulated by high-speed stirring and the ultra-sonication method. Solubility studies were carried out to select stearic acid as lipid former, Tween 80 as surfactant, and Transcutol P as cosurfactant. Clarithromycin-loaded SLN were optimized by fractional factorial screening and 3² full factorial designs. Optimized SLNs (CL10) were evaluated for stability, morphology, permeation, irritation, and ocular pharmacokinetics in rabbits. Fractional factorial screening design signifies that the sonication time and amount of lipid affect the SLN formulation. A 3² full factorial design established that both factors had significant influences on particle size, percent entrapment efficiency, and percent drug loading of SLNs. The release profile of SLNs (CL9) showed ~80% drug release in 8 h and followed Weibull model kinetics. Optimized SLNs (CL10) showed significantly higher permeation (30.45 μg/cm²/h; p < 0.0001) as compared to control (solution). CL10 showed spherical shape and good stability and was found non-irritant for ocular administration. Pharmacokinetics data demonstrated significant improvement of clarithromycin bioavailability (p < 0.0001) from CL10, as evidenced by a 150% increase in C_max (~1066 ng/mL) and a 2.8-fold improvement in AUC (5736 ng h/mL) (p < 0.0001) as compared to control solution (C_max; 655 ng/mL and AUC; 2067 ng h/mL). In summary, the data observed here demonstrate the potential of developed SLNs to improve the ocular permeation and enhance the therapeutic potential of clarithromycin, and hence could be a viable drug delivery approach to treat endophthalmitis.

Experimental design, formulation and in vivo evaluation of a novel topical in situ gel system to treat ocular infections

In situ gels have been extensively explored as ocular drug delivery system to enhance bioavailability and efficacy. The objective of present study was to design, formulate and evaluate ion-activated in situ gel to enhance the ocular penetration and therapeutic performance of moxifloxacin in ophthalmic delivery. A simplex lattice design was utilized to examine the effect of various factors on experimental outcomes of the in situ gel system. The influence of polymers (independent variables) such as gellan gum (X₁), sodium alginate (X₂), and HPMC (X₃) on gel strength, adhesive force, viscosity and drug release after 10 h (Q₁₀) were assessed. Selected formulation (MH7) was studied for ex vivo permeation, in vivo irritation and pharmacokinetics in rabbits. Data revealed that increase in concentration of polymers led to higher gel strength, adhesive force and viscosity, however, decreases the drug release. MH7 exhibited all physicochemical properties within acceptable limits and was stable for 6 months. Release profile of moxifloxacin from MH7 was comparable to the check point batches and followed Korsmeyer-Peppas matrix diffusion-controlled mechanism. Ocular irritation study signifies that selected formulation is safe and non-irritant for ophthalmic administration. In vivo pharmacokinetics data indicates significant improvement of moxifloxacin bioavailability (p < 0.0001) from MH7, as evidenced by higher C_max (727 ± 56 ng/ml) and greater AUC (2881 ± 108 ng h/ml), when compared with commercial eye drops (C_max; 503 ± 85 ng/ml and AUC; 978 ± 86 ng h/ml). In conclusion, developed in situ gel system (MH7) could offers a more effective and extended ophthalmic therapy of moxifloxacin in ocular infections when compared to conventional eye drops.

Curcumin Niosomes Prepared from Proniosomal Gels: In Vitro Skin Permeability, Kinetic and In Vivo Studies

Curcumin is a poorly water-soluble drug that is used for the treatment of inflammations, tumors, wound healing antioxidant and other diseases. In the current manuscript, it is successfully formulated into proniosome gels. The proniosomes are readily hydrated into niosomal formulations using warm water. Proniosomes were prepared using nonionic surfactants (tween 80, span 60) either solely or in combinations with cholesterol. The produced niosomal formulations were homogenous in size with vesicular sizes >343 and <1800 nm. The encapsulation efficiency percentage “EE%” of curcumin in niosomal formulations was different according to niosomal composition. It increased up to 99.74% in formulations of tween 80/Chol of 200 μmole/mL lipid concentration. Span 60/chol niosomes showed decreased curcumin EE%. Niosomal formulations showed increased SSTF and PC with enhancement ratios of more than 20-fold compared with curcumin suspension form. Kinetically, niosomes fitted to the Korsemeyer-Peppas model with non-Fickian transport according to their calculated n-values where curcumin suspension form showed Korsemeyer-Peppas kinetics with Fickian transport. Niosomal formulations deposited higher curcumin amounts in the skin compared with the suspension form. The best niosomal formulation (F9) was used for niosomal gel and emulgel fabrication. Finally, the anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin in various formulations was evaluated using a rat hind paw edema method and the % of swelling was 17.5% following 24 h in group treated with curcumin niosomal emulgel. In conclusion, this study suggests that the developed niosomal emulgel could significantly enhance the anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin and be an efficient carrier for the transdermal delivery of the drug.

Development of Provesicular Nanodelivery System of Curcumin as a Safe and Effective Antiviral Agent: Statistical Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and Antiviral Effectiveness

Curcumin is a natural compound that has many medical applications. However, its low solubility and poor stability could impede its clinical applications. The present study aimed to formulate dry proniosomes to overcome these pitfalls and improve the therapeutic efficacy of Curcumin. Curcumin-loaded proniosomes were fabricated by the slurry method according to 32 factorial design using Design-Expert software to demonstrate the impact of different independent variables on entrapment efficiency (EE%) and % drug released after 12 h (Q12h). The optimized formula (F5) was selected according to the desirability criteria. F5 exhibited good flowability and appeared, after reconstitution, as spherical nanovesicles with EE% of 89.94 ± 2.31% and Q12h of 70.89 ± 1.62%. F5 demonstrated higher stability and a significant enhancement of Q12h than the corresponding niosomes. The docking study investigated the ability of Curcumin to bind effectively with the active site of DNA polymerase of Herpes simplex virus (HSV). The antiviral activity and the safety of F5 were significantly higher than Curcumin. F5 improved the safety of Acyclovir (ACV) and reduced its effective dose that produced a 100% reduction of viral plaques. Proniosomes could be promising stable carriers of Curcumin to be used as a safe and efficient antiviral agent.

Development and Optimization of Naringenin-Loaded Chitosan-Coated Nanoemulsion for Topical Therapy in Wound Healing

The potential role of naringenin (NAR), a natural flavonoid, in the treatment of chronic wound has prompted the present research to deliver the drug in nanoemulsion (NE) form, where synergistic role of chitosan was achieved through development of chitosan-coated NAR NE (CNNE). The NE consisted of Capryol 90, Tween 20 and Transcutol P, which was fabricated by low-energy emulsification method to encapsulate NAR within the oil core. The optimization of the formulated NEs was performed using Box-Behnken statistical design to obtain crucial variable parameters that influence globule size, size distribution and surface charge. Finally, the optimized formulation was coated with different concentrations of chitosan and subsequently characterized in vitro. The size of the CNNE was found to be increased when the drug-loaded formulation was coated with chitosan. Controlled release characteristics depicted 67-81% release of NAR from the CNNE, compared to 89% from the NE formulation. Cytotoxicity study of the formulation was performed in vitro using fibroblast cell line (NIH-3T3), where no inhibition in proliferation of the cells was observed with CNNE. Finally, the wound healing potential of the CNNE was evaluated in an abrasion-created wound model in experimental animals where the animals were treated and compared histologically at 0 and 14 days. Significant improvement in construction of the abrasion wound was observed when the animals were treated with formulated CNNE, whereas stimulation of skin regeneration was depicted in the histological examination. Therefore, it could be summarized that the chitosan coating of the developed NAR NE is a potential platform to accelerate healing of wounds.

Vesicular Emulgel Based System for Transdermal Delivery of Insulin: Factorial Design and in Vivo Evaluation

Transdermal delivery of insulin is a great challenge due to its poor permeability through the skin. The aim of the current investigation was to evaluate the prospective of insulin loaded niosome emulgel as a noninvasive delivery system for its transdermal therapy. A 23 full-factorial design was used to optimize the insulin niosome emulgel by assessing the effect of independent variables (concentration of paraffin oil, Tween 80 and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) on dependent variables (in vitro release, viscosity and in vitro permeation). The physical characteristics of the prepared formulations were carried out by determining viscosity, particle size, entrapment efficiency, drug loading, drug release and kinetics. In vitro permeation studies were carried out using rat skin membrane. Hypoglycemic activity of prepared formulations was assessed in diabetic-induced rats. It was observed that the independent variables influenced the dependent variables. A significant difference (p < 0.05) in viscosity was noticed between the prepared gels, which in turn influenced the insulin release. The order of permeation is: insulin niosome emulgel > insulin niosome gel > insulin emulgel > insulin gel > insulin niosomes > insulin solution. The enhancement in transdermal flux in insulin niosome emulgel was 10-fold higher than the control (insulin solution). In vivo data significantly demonstrated reduction (p < 0.05) of plasma glucose level (at six hours) by insulin niosome emulgel than other formulations tested. The results suggest that the developed insulin niosome emulgel could be an efficient carrier for the transdermal delivery of insulin.

Fabrication of Anti-HSV-1 Curcumin Stabilized Nanostructured Proniosomal Gel: Molecular Docking Studies on Thymidine Kinase Proteins

Curcumin is a dietary compound with accrued evidence of antiviral activity. Poor solubility and permeation renders curcumin a good applicant for incorporation into proniosomes. The intent of this study was to formulate curcumin proniosomal gel for topical application and the evaluation of its in-vitro, ex-vivo activities against Herpes Simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), as well as molecular docking studies on HSV-1 thymidine kinase proteins. Coacervation phase separation tactic, using 23 full factorial design, was used in the preparation of different proniosomes. Cytotoxicity of the selected formulae (F4 and F8) was evaluated on the Vero cell line. Optimal formulae (F4 and F8) showed entrapment efficiency of 97.15 ± 2.47% and 95.85 ± 2.9%, vesicle size of 173.7 ± 2.26 nm and 206.15 ± 4.17 nm and percentages curcumin released after 3 h of 51.9 ± 1.4% and 50.5 ± 1.1%, respectively. Ex-vivo permeation studies demonstrated that the optimal formulae markedly improved the dermal curcumin delivery. Curcumin proniosomal gel formulae exhibited 85.4% reduction of HSV-1 replication. The ability of curcumin to interact with the key amino acids in the enzyme binding sites of 1KI7, 1KI4, and 1E2P, as indicated by its docking pattern, rationalized its observed activity. Therefore, curcumin proniosomes could be considered as a successful topical delivery system for the treatment of HSV-1.