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Crews FT, Macht V, Vetreno RP. Epigenetic regulation of microglia and neurons by proinflammatory signaling following adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) exposure and in human AUD. ADVANCES IN DRUG AND ALCOHOL RESEARCH 2024; 4:12094. [PMID: 38524847 PMCID: PMC10957664 DOI: 10.3389/adar.2024.12094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Adolescent alcohol drinking is linked to high rates of adult alcohol problems and alcohol use disorder (AUD). The Neurobiology of Alcohol Drinking in Adulthood (NADIA) consortium adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) models adolescent binge drinking, followed by abstinent maturation to adulthood to determine the persistent AIE changes in neurobiology and behavior. AIE increases adult alcohol drinking and preference, increases anxiety and reward seeking, and disrupts sleep and cognition, all risks for AUD. In addition, AIE induces changes in neuroimmune gene expression in neurons and glia that alter neurocircuitry and behavior. HMGB1 is a unique neuroimmune signal released from neurons and glia by ethanol that activates multiple proinflammatory receptors, including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), that spread proinflammatory gene induction. HMGB1 expression is increased by AIE in rat brain and in post-mortem human AUD brain, where it correlates with lifetime alcohol consumption. HMGB1 activation of TLR increase TLR expression. Human AUD brain and rat brain following AIE show increases in multiple TLRs. Brain regional differences in neurotransmitters and cell types impact ethanol responses and neuroimmune gene induction. Microglia are monocyte-like cells that provide trophic and synaptic functions, that ethanol proinflammatory signals sensitize or "prime" during repeated drinking cycles, impacting neurocircuitry. Neurocircuits are differently impacted dependent upon neuronal-glial signaling. Acetylcholine is an anti-inflammatory neurotransmitter. AIE increases HMGB1-TLR4 signaling in forebrain, reducing cholinergic neurons by silencing multiple cholinergic defining genes through upregulation of RE-1 silencing factor (REST), a transcription inhibitor known to regulate neuronal differentiation. HMGB1 REST induction reduces cholinergic neurons in basal forebrain and cholinergic innervation of hippocampus. Adult brain hippocampal neurogenesis is regulated by a neurogenic niche formed from multiple cells. In vivo AIE and in vitro studies find ethanol increases HMGB1-TLR4 signaling and other proinflammatory signaling as well as reducing trophic factors, NGF, and BDNF, coincident with loss of the cholinergic synapse marker vChAT. These changes in gene expression-transcriptomes result in reduced adult neurogenesis. Excitingly, HMGB1 antagonists, anti-inflammatories, and epigenetic modifiers like histone deacetylase inhibitors restore trophic the neurogenesis. These findings suggest anti-inflammatory and epigenetic drugs should be considered for AUD therapy and may provide long-lasting reversal of psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulton T. Crews
- Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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Ye J, Gao S, Liu Z, Chen X, He J, Hu Z. The HMGB1-RAGE axis in nucleus accumbens facilitates cocaine-induced conditioned place preference via modulating microglial activation. Brain Behav 2024; 14:e3457. [PMID: 38450910 PMCID: PMC10918599 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.3457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Repeated exposure to cocaine induces microglial activation. Cocaine exposure also induces a release of high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) from neurons into the extracellular space in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). HMGB1 is an important late inflammatory mediator of microglial activation. However, whether the secretion of HMGB1 acts on microglia or contributes to cocaine addiction is largely unknown. METHODS Rats were trained by intraperitoneal cocaine administration and cocaine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). Expression of HMGB1 was regulated by viral vectors. Activation of microglia was inhibited by minocycline. Interaction of HMGB1 and the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) was disrupted by peptide. RESULTS Cocaine injection facilitated HMGB1 signaling, together with the delayed activation of microglia concurrently in the NAc. Furthermore, the inhibition of HMGB1 or microglia activation attenuated cocaine-induced CPP. Box A, a specific antagonist to interrupt the interaction of HMGB1 and RAGE, abolished the expression of cocaine reward memory. Meanwhile, the inhibition of HMGB1-RAGE interaction suppressed cocaine-induced microglial activation, as well as the consolidation of cocaine-induced memory. CONCLUSION All above results suggest that the neural HMGB1 induces activation of microglia through RAGE, which contributes to the consolidation of cocaine reward memory. These findings offer HMGB1-RAGE axis as a new target for the treatment of drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Ye
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Shuang‐Qi Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
- Departments of NeurosurgeryThird Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat‐Sen UniversityGuangzhouGuangdong ProvinceChina
| | - Zi‐Cun Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Jin‐Gang He
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Zhuang‐Li Hu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
- The Key Laboratory for Drug Target Researches and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of Hubei ProvinceWuhanChina
- The Research Center for Depression, Tongji Medical CollegeHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
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Golub A, Ordak M, Nasierowski T, Bujalska-Zadrozny M. Advanced Biomarkers of Hepatotoxicity in Psychiatry: A Narrative Review and Recommendations for New Psychoactive Substances. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119413. [PMID: 37298365 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the factors that increase the effectiveness of the pharmacotherapy used in patients abusing various types of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) is the proper functioning of the liver. However, the articles published to date on NPS hepatotoxicity only address non-specific hepatic parameters. The aim of this manuscript was to review three advanced markers of hepatotoxicity in psychiatry, namely, osteopontin (OPN), high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) and glutathione dehydrogenase (GDH, GLDH), and, on this basis, to identify recommendations that should be included in future studies in patients abusing NPSs. This will make it possible to determine whether NPSs do indeed have a hepatotoxic effect or whether other factors, such as additional substances taken or hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, are responsible. NPS abusers are at particular risk of HCV infection, and for this reason, it is all the more important to determine what factors actually show a hepatotoxic effect in them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aniela Golub
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Str., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michal Ordak
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Str., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Nasierowski
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Nowowiejska 27 Str., 00-665 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Bujalska-Zadrozny
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Str., 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
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Cao Y, Zhi J, Ren H, Sheng M, Jia L, Weng Y, Du H, Yu W. Association between serum HMGB1 elevation and early pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome: a retrospective study of pediatric living donor liver transplant recipients with biliary atresia in China. BMC Anesthesiol 2023; 23:87. [PMID: 36944948 PMCID: PMC10028322 DOI: 10.1186/s12871-023-02040-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein is one of the main risk factors for pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (PARDS) after living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). However, studies of the relationship between HMGB1 and PARDS are lacking. We evaluated the link between anomalies of intraoperative serum HMGB1 and PARDS in pediatric LDLT recipients with biliary atresia during the first week after transplant. METHODS Data for 210 pediatric patients with biliary atresia who underwent LDLT between January 2018 and December 2021 were reviewed retrospectively. The main measure was serum HMGB1 levels 30 min after reperfusion, while the outcome was early PARDS after LDLT. Data including pretransplant conditions, laboratory indexes, variables of intraoperation, clinical complications, and outcomes after LDLT were analyzed for each patient. Univariate analysis of PARDS and multivariate logistic regression analyses of serum HMGB1 levels at 30 min in the neohepatic phase in the presence of PARDS were conducted to examine the potential associations. Subgroup interaction analyses and linear relationships between intraoperative serum HMGB1 levels and PARDS were also performed. RESULTS Among the participants, 55 had PARDS during 7 days after LDLT, including four in the first HMGB1 tertile (4.3-8.1 pg/mL), 18 in the second tertile (8.2-10.6 pg/mL), and 33 in the third tertile (10.6-18.8 pg/mL). The nonadjusted association between intraoperative HMGB1 levels and PARDS was positive (odds ratio 1.41, 95% confidence intervals 1.24-1.61, P < 0.0001). The association remained unchanged after adjustment for age, weight, pretransplant total bilirubin, albumin, graft cold ischemia time, and intraoperative blood loss volume (odds ratio 1.28, 95% confidence interval 1.10-1.49, P = 0.0017). After controlling for potential confounders, the association between intraoperative HMGB1 levels and PARDS remained positive, as well as in the subgroup analyses. CONCLUSIONS Serum HMGB1 levels at 30 min after reperfusion were positively associated with early PARDS among pediatric patients with biliary atresia who had undergone LDLT. Identifying such patients early may increase the efficacy of perioperative respiratory management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimei Cao
- The First Central Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, China
| | - Jiahao Zhi
- The First Central Clinical College of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300070, China
| | - Hengchang Ren
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, 24 Fukang Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Mingwei Sheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, 24 Fukang Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Lili Jia
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, 24 Fukang Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Yiqi Weng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, 24 Fukang Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Hongyin Du
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, 24 Fukang Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300192, China.
| | - Wenli Yu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tianjin First Central Hospital, 24 Fukang Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300192, China.
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Singh KP, Pallett LJ, Singh H, Chen A, Otano I, Duriez M, Rombouts K, Pinzani M, Crane M, Fusai G, Avihingsanon A, Lewin SR, Maini MK. Pro-fibrogenic role of alarmin high mobility group box 1 in HIV-hepatitis B virus coinfection. AIDS 2023; 37:401-411. [PMID: 36384811 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000003435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Liver disease is accelerated in people with HIV (PWH) with hepatitis B virus (HBV) coinfection. We hypothesized that liver fibrosis in HIV-HBV is triggered by increased hepatocyte apoptosis, microbial translocation and/or HIV/HBV viral products. DESIGN Sera from PWH with HBV coinfection versus from those with HBV only or putative mediators were used to examine the pathogenesis of liver disease in HIV-HBV. METHODS We applied sera from PWH and HBV coinfection versus HBV alone, or putative mediators (including HMGB1), to primary human hepatic stellate cells (hHSC) and examined pro-fibrogenic changes at the single cell level using flow cytometry. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) levels in the applied sera were assessed according to donor fibrosis stage. RESULTS Quantitative flow cytometric assessment of pro-fibrogenic and inflammatory changes at the single cell level revealed an enhanced capacity for sera from PWH with HBV coinfection to activate hHSC. This effect was recapitulated by lipopolysaccharide, HIV-gp120, hepatocyte conditioned-media and the alarmin HMGB1. Induction of hepatocyte cell death increased their pro-fibrogenic potential, an effect blocked by HMGB1 antagonist glycyrrhizic acid. Consistent with a role for this alarmin, HMGB1 levels were elevated in sera from PWH and hepatitis B coinfection compared to HBV alone and higher in those with HIV-HBV with liver fibrosis compared to those without. CONCLUSIONS Sera from PWH and HBV coinfection have an enhanced capacity to activate primary hHSC. We identified an increase in circulating HMGB1 which, in addition to HIV-gp120 and translocated microbial products, drove pro-fibrogenic changes in hHSC, as mechanisms contributing to accelerated liver disease in HIV-HBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasha P Singh
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Health and Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura J Pallett
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Harsimran Singh
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
- Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Antony Chen
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Itziar Otano
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Marion Duriez
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Krista Rombouts
- Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Massimo Pinzani
- Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Megan Crane
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity
| | - Giuseppe Fusai
- Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Sharon R Lewin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Health and Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mala K Maini
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
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Crews FT, Coleman LG, Macht VA, Vetreno RP. Targeting Persistent Changes in Neuroimmune and Epigenetic Signaling in Adolescent Drinking to Treat Alcohol Use Disorder in Adulthood. Pharmacol Rev 2023; 75:380-396. [PMID: 36781218 PMCID: PMC9969522 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.122.000710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies universally find early age of drinking onset is linked to lifelong risks of alcohol problems and alcohol use disorder (AUD). Assessment of the lasting effect of drinking during adolescent development in humans is confounded by the diversity of environmental and genetic factors that affect adolescent development, including emerging personality disorders and progressive increases in drinking trajectories into adulthood. Preclinical studies using an adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) exposure rat model of underage binge drinking avoid the human confounds and support lifelong changes that increase risks. AIE increases adult alcohol drinking, risky decision-making, reward-seeking, and anxiety as well as reductions in executive function that all increase risks for the development of an AUD. AIE causes persistent increases in brain neuroimmune signaling high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), Toll-like receptor, receptor for advanced glycation end products, and innate immune genes that are also found to be increased in human AUD brain. HMGB1 is released from cells by ethanol, both free and within extracellular vesicles, that act on neurons and glia, shifting transcription and cellular phenotype. AIE-induced decreases in adult hippocampal neurogenesis and loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons are reviewed as examples of persistent AIE-induced pathology. Both are prevented and reversed by anti-inflammatory and epigenetic drugs. Findings suggest AIE-increased HMGB1 signaling induces the RE-1 silencing transcript blunting cholinergic gene expression, shifting neuronal phenotype. Inhibition of HMGB1 neuroimmune signaling, histone methylation enzymes, and galantamine, the cholinesterase inhibitor, both prevent and reverse AIE pathology. These findings provide new targets that may reverse AUD neuropathology as well as other brain diseases linked to neuroimmune signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Adolescent underage binge drinking studies find that earlier adolescent drinking is associated with lifelong alcohol problems including high levels of lifetime alcohol use disorder (AUD). Preclinical studies find the underage binge drinking adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) model causes lasting changes in adults that increase risks of developing adult alcohol problems. Loss of hippocampal neurogenesis and loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons provide examples of how AIE-induced epigenetic and neuroimmune signaling provide novel therapeutic targets for adult AUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulton T Crews
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies and Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Leon G Coleman
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies and Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Victoria A Macht
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies and Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Ryan P Vetreno
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies and Departments of Pharmacology and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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Asai A, Tsuchimoto Y, Ohama H, Nishikawa H, Chopra A, Higuchi K. CD34+CD10+CD19− Cells in Patients with Unhealthy Alcohol Use Stimulate the M2b Monocyte Polarization. Cells 2022; 11:cells11172703. [PMID: 36078108 PMCID: PMC9454773 DOI: 10.3390/cells11172703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
M2b monocytes commonly isolated from patients with unhealthy alcohol use (Alc) have been described as cells that make the host susceptible to opportunistic infections. CD34+CD10+CD19− cells are multilineage progenitors of CD19+ cells, and we show that the effect of these cells from the peripheral blood on M2b monocyte polarization differed between healthy donors and Alc in this study. In healthy donors, these cells consistently differentiated into high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1)-nonproducing cells (CD19+ cells) in response to retinoic acid (RA). However, owing to the lack of expression of RA receptor (RAR), these cells from Alc failed to differentiate into CD19+ cells under the same RA stimulation. Conditioned medium (CM) of these cells from Alc induced the polarization of M2b monocytes, which increases the susceptibility of hosts to opportunistic infections in Alc. When the alcoholic individuals were subjected to 2 weeks of abstinence from alcohol, these cells from Alc recovered their RAR expression and differentiated into CD19+ cells. Moreover, the CM of these cells from Alc after abstinence lost its ability to induce M2b monocyte polarization. These results indicate that these cells from Alc have different properties from those of healthy donors. In Alc, these cells without RAR stimulate M2b monocyte polarization through the production of HMGB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Asai
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki 569-8686, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-(726)-83-1221
| | - Yusuke Tsuchimoto
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki 569-8686, Japan
| | - Hideko Ohama
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki 569-8686, Japan
| | - Hiroki Nishikawa
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki 569-8686, Japan
| | - Ashok Chopra
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Kazuhide Higuchi
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki 569-8686, Japan
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Alcohol Induces Zebrafish Skeletal Muscle Atrophy through HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB Signaling. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12081211. [PMID: 36013390 PMCID: PMC9410481 DOI: 10.3390/life12081211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Excessive alcohol consumption can cause alcoholic myopathy, but the molecular mechanism is still unclear. In this study, zebrafish were exposed to 0.5% alcohol for eight weeks to investigate the effect of alcohol on skeletal muscle and its molecular mechanism. The results showed that the body length, body weight, cross-sectional area of the skeletal muscle fibers, Ucrit, and MO2max of the zebrafish were significantly decreased after alcohol exposure. The expression of markers of skeletal muscle atrophy and autophagy was increased, and the expression of P62 was significantly reduced. The content of ROS, the mRNA expression of sod1 and sod2, and the protein expression of Nox2 were significantly increased. In addition, we found that the inflammatory factors Il1β and Tnfα were significantly enriched in skeletal muscle, and the expression of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling axis was also significantly increased. In summary, in this study, we established a zebrafish model of alcohol-induced skeletal muscle atrophy and further elucidated its pathogenesis.
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